What are adjectives?

An adjective is a word like kind, happy, smart and intelligent. An adjective typically modifies a noun and denotes a temporary or permanent quality associated with that noun. For example, a smart boy is a boy who is distinguished from other boys by being smart.

Not all adjectives are used to denote a quality associated with a noun. For example, the 

adjective mere in ‘a mere child’ does not denote a quality of the child.

Kinds of adjectives

Adjectives may be divided into the following classes:

Adjectives of quality

Adjectives of quality refer to the kind or quality of a person or thing. They answer the question: ‘of what kind?’

• Tokyo is a large city. (Here the adjective large shows a certain quality associated with the city Tokyo.)
• Alice is a brilliant student. (Here the adjective brilliant shows a quality associated with the noun Alice.)

Note that adjectives formed from proper nouns are generally considered as adjectives of quality. Examples are: Persian carpets, French wines etc.

Adjectives of quantity

Adjectives of quantity answer the question ‘how much?’. Examples are: some, any, much, little, enough, all, no, half, whole etc.

• We need some rice.
• You have little patience.
• He has lost all his wealth.
• He did not eat any rice.

Adjectives of number

Adjectives of number answer the question ‘how many’. Examples are: many, one, two, first, tenth, all etc.

• Each hand has five fingers.
• Sunday is the first day of the week.
• All men must die.
• There are several mistakes in your essay.

Demonstrative adjectives

Demonstrative adjectives answer the question ‘which?’. Examples are: this, that, these, those and such.

• That boy is industrious.
• This bag is made of expensive leather.
• Those mangoes were very sweet.
• I hate such people.

Note that this and that are used with singular nouns. These and those are used with plural nouns.

Interrogative adjectives

When they are used with nouns to ask questions, the questions words what, which and whose are called interrogative adjectives.

• Whose bag is this?
• Which way shall we go?

List of interjections

An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses a sudden emotion. Interjections are used to exclaim, protest or react. They can stand by themselves. They may also appear within larger structures.

• Hurrah! We’ve won!

• Alas, she’s dead now.

Mild interjections are usually set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma. More powerful interjections are followed by an exclamation mark.

Here is a list of common interjections in English.

Ah

This expression can express ideas such as pleasure and surprise.

• Ah! It feels good.
• Ah! I’ve passed.

Alas

This word expresses pity or grief.

• Alas, we’ve lost.

Eh

The word eh has several meanings. It can be used to ask for repetition or to make an 

enquiry.

• ‘I’m going.’ ‘Eh?’ ‘I said I’m going.’
• ‘What do you think of my new hairstyle, eh?’

‘Eh’ can also express surprise.

• ‘I’ve won.’ ‘Eh! Really?’

Hey

This word is mainly used to call attention.

• ‘Hey! Where are you going?’

Hi

This is a word used to greet people.

• ‘Hi John. How’re you?’

Hmm

This word expresses doubt or hesitation.

• ‘Hmm. Let’s me see.’

Oh

This word expresses surprise.

• ‘Oh! You both know each other.’

‘Oh’ can also express pain.

• ‘Oh! I’ve got a bad headache.’

Ouch

This word mainly expresses pain.

• ‘Ouch! That hurts really badly!’

Well

This word is commonly used to introduce a remark.

• ‘Well, how did he react?’
• ‘Well, we are not exactly interested in this.’

What are conjunctions?

Conjunctions are words like and, but, or, yet, because, since and so.

Read the following sentences:

1. God made the country and man made the town.
2. She must cry, or she will die.
3. Two and two make four.

In sentence 1 and 2, the conjunctions and and or join two sentences together. In sentence 3, the conjunction and merely joins two words together.

Thus we have seen that a conjunction is a word which merely joins two sentences together. Sometimes a conjunction joins two words together.

Why use conjunctions?

Conjunctions join together sentences and make them more compact. The sentence, ‘John and Peter are good students’ is a short way of saying ‘John is a good student and Peter is a good student’. Similarly, the sentence ‘He is poor, but honest’ is a contracted way of saying ‘He is poor but he is honest’.

However,  sometimes the conjunction and joins words only.

• Jack and Jill went up the hill.
• John and Peter are good friends.

Note that sentences of this kind cannot be resolved into two.

Conjunctions must be carefully distinguished from relative pronouns, relative adverbs and prepositions which are also connecting words.

Compare:

This is the house that Jack built. (Here the relative pronoun that joins the two clauses ‘this is the house’ and ‘jack built’ together.)

This is the place where he was buried. (Here the relative adverb where joins the two clauses ‘this is the place’ and ‘he was buried’ together.)

I was annoyed, still I kept quiet. (Here the conjunction still joins the two clauses ‘I was annoyed’ and ‘I kept quiet’ together.)

Kinds of conjunctions

Conjunctions are divided into two classes: coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.

Read the following sentence:

Birds fly and fish swim.

This sentence contains two independent statements or two statements of equal rank or importance. The conjunction that joins together two clauses of equal rank is called a coordinating conjunction.

Notes

Coordinating conjunctions generally connect sentence elements of the same grammatical class. Examples: nouns with nouns, adverbs with adverbs, phrases with phrases and clauses with clauses.

• Jack and Jill went up the hill. (Here the coordinating conjunction and connects two nouns.)
• He worked diligently and patiently. (Here the coordinating conjunction and connects two adverbs.)

The chief coordinating conjunctions are: and, but, for, or, nor, also, either…or, 

neither…nor.

Kinds of coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are of four kinds.

1. Cumulative or copulative conjunctions
2. Adversative conjunctions
3. Disjunctive or alternative conjunctions
4. Illative conjunctions

Cumulative conjunctions

Cumulative conjunctions merely add one statement to another. Examples are: and, both…and, as well as, not only…but also.

• Alice wrote the letters and Peter posted them.
• The cow got up and walked away slowly.

Adversative conjunctions

Adversative conjunctions express contrast between two statements. Examples are: but, still, yet, whereas, while, nevertheless etc.

• The rope was thin but it was strong.
• She is poor but she is happy.
• He is hardworking whereas his brother is quite the reverse.

Disjunctive or alternative conjunctions

Conjunctions which present two alternatives are called disjunctive or alternative conjunctions. Examples are: or, either…or, neither…nor, neither, nor, otherwise, else etc.

• She must weep, or she will die.
• Either he is mad, or he feigns madness.
• They toil not, neither do they spin.
• Neither a borrower, nor a lender be.

Illative conjunctions

Some coordinating conjunctions express something inferred from another statement or fact. These are called illative conjunctions. Examples are: for and so.

• Somebody came,  for I heard a knock at the door.
• He must be asleep, for there is no light in his room.
• He has been working hard, so he will pass.

Subordinating conjunctions

A conjunction that joins together clauses of unequal rank or importance is
called a subordinating conjunction. Read the following sentence:

• I told him that he should consult a doctor.

Here that joins together two clauses of unequal rank. I told him is the main clause, and that he should consult a doctor is a subordinate clause which is the object of the verb told in the main clause.

A subordinating conjunction connects a noun clause or an adverb clause to some other clause. Note that subordinating conjunctions are not used to connect adjective clauses.

Subordinating conjunctions introducing noun clauses

The most common subordinating conjunction used for introducing a noun clause is that; others are if, when, whether, why and how.

• I don’t know whether he will come.
• I think that he is trustworthy.
• I don’t care if he comes or not.

Subordinating conjunctions introducing adverb clauses

Adverb clause of time

Examples are: before, since, till, after etc.

• I returned home after he had gone.
• I have not seen him since we moved into this city.
• I will not forget that incident till I die.

Adverb clause of reason

Examples are: as, because, since etc.

• He may enter, as he is a friend.
• As he was not there, I left a message with his brother.
• He will get a promotion because he has proved his efficiency.

Adverb clause of purpose

Examples are: that, lest, in order that etc.

• We eat so that we may live.
• He held my hand, lest I should fall.
• Children should play games in order that their health may improve.

Adverb clause of result or consequence

Examples are: so…that

• He was so weak that he could hardly stand.
• She ate so much that she fell ill.

Adverb clause of condition

Examples are: if, unless, provided that

• I will go abroad if I get a good job.
• They won’t help you unless you tell them the truth.
• They will help you provided you tell them the truth.
• She spoke as if she knew everything.

Adverb clause of concession

Examples are: though and although

• He works hard though he is weak.
• She is always neatly dressed although she is poor.

Adverb clause of comparison

Example: than

• He is cleverer than I am.
• I like him better than her.

Correlative conjunctions

Some conjunctions are used in pairs. They are called correlative conjunctions. Note that most correlative conjunctions are of the coordinating type.

Examples are:

Either…or

Either take it or leave it.
You must either obey my instructions or quit.
Either you or he will have to do it.

Neither…nor

I will neither take it nor leave it.
I will neither obey your instructions nor quit.
Neither he nor I will do it.

Not only…but also

They not only looted the shop but also set it on fire.
Not only Alice, but Mary also came.
He visited not only Europe but also America.

Note that also is sometimes omitted.

She was not only beautiful but intelligent. (= She was not only beautiful but also intelligent.)

Whether…or

I don’t know whether I should stay or leave.
Whether he comes or not makes no difference at all.

Both…and

She is both beautiful and intelligent.
He is both educated and cultured.
Both John and Peter participated in the program.

So…that

She was so tired that she could not walk.
The officer was so corrupt that he had to be sacked.

Such…that

Such was her beauty that men from far and near came to woo her.

No sooner… than

No sooner did the tiger appear than he shot it down.

No sooner had she read the letter than she burst into tears.

Note that it is wrong to use when instead of than in these sentences. It should also be noted that did or had must come immediately after no sooner.

Coordinating conjunctions

There are two kinds of conjunctions – coordinating and subordinating.

Read the following sentences:

God made the country and man made the town.

I have not seen him since he was a boy.

In the first sentence, two independent clauses of equal importance are joined together by and. A conjunction which joins together two clauses of equal rank is called a coordinating conjunction.

In the second sentence since joins two clauses of unequal importance. I have not seen him is the main clause because it makes complete sense and can stand alone. Since he was a boy is a subordinate clause which modifies the verb have not seen in the main clause.

A conjunction that joins together clauses of unequal importance is called a subordinating conjunction.

Coordinating conjunctions

The chief coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, nor, so, for, either…or, neither…nor. A coordinating conjunction usually connects sentence elements of the same grammatical clause: e.g. nouns with nouns, adverbs with adverbs, phrases with phrases and clauses with clauses.

• Jack and Jill went up the hill. (Here the conjunction and joins the nouns Jack and Jill.)
• He worked diligently and patiently. (Here the conjunction and joins the adverbs diligently and patiently.)
• He is slow but he is steady. (Here the conjunction but joins the clauses ‘he is slow’ and ‘he is steady’.)

Kinds of coordinating conjunctions

There are mainly four kinds of coordinating conjunctions:

• Cumulative or copulative
• Adversative
• Alternative
• Illative

Kinds of co-ordinating conjunctions

Cumulative conjunction

A cumulative conjunction merely adds one statement to another. Examples are:  and, both…and, as well as, not only…but also

Alice cooked the dinner and Peter tidied the house.

She is both clever and beautiful.

Tom as well as John passed the test.

They not only looted the shop but also set it on fire.

Adversative conjunction

An adversative conjunction expresses opposition or contrast between two statements. 

Examples are: but, still, yet, whereas, while, nevertheless etc.

The rope was thin but it was strong.

He is rich still he is unhappy.

There was little chance of success nevertheless they decided to go ahead.

Alternative conjunction

A conjunction which presents two alternatives, sometimes indicating a choice between them, is called a disjunctive or alternative conjunction. Examples are: or, either…or, neither…nor, neither, nor, otherwise, else

You can have coffee or tea.

You must either obey my instructions or quit.

I will neither obey your instructions nor quit.

She didn’t sing, neither did she dance.

You must pay the fine otherwise you will be punished.

Illative conjunctions

Conjunctions which express an inference are called illative conjunctions. Examples are: for, so

Something fell for I heard a thud.

He works hard so he will win.

They must have gone out for nobody answers the phone.

Correct use of conjunctions – Part III

Scarcely…when

It is wrong to use than instead of when in these sentences:

• Scarcely had I reached the station than the train steamed out. (Incorrect)
• Scarcely had I reached the station when the train steamed out. (Correct)

If scarcely begins the sentence it should be immediately followed by had.

• Scarcely I had reached the station when the train steamed out. (Incorrect)
• Scarcely had I reached the station when the train steamed out. (Correct)
• I had scarcely reached the station when the train steamed out. (Correct)

Correlatives

The correlatives either…or, neither…nor, both…and, not only…but also must be placed immediately before the words they relate to.

• Neither he would eat nor allow us to eat. (Incorrect)
• He would neither eat nor allow us to eat. (Correct)
• Neither I shall follow your instructions nor resign. (Incorrect)
• I shall neither follow your instructions nor resign. (Correct)
• He not only visited France but also Germany.
• He visited not only France but also Germany.

Exercise

Fill in the blanks with appropriate conjunctions

1. I would rather be an engineer —————– a doctor.

2. I cannot excuse you —————— you apologize.

3. Neither a lender —————- a borrower be.

4. Work hard —————– you should fail.

5. Clever ——————- he was, he could not solve the problem.

Answers

1. than

2. unless

3. nor

4. lest

5. as

Correct use of some conjunctions – part II

Unless

Unless means if not and hence there is no need to add another not into the following clause.

• Incorrect: Unless you do not obey my instructions, you will be dismissed.
• Correct: Unless you obey my instructions, you will be dismissed.
• Correct: If you do not obey my instructions, you will be dismissed.

Lest

Lest means that…not and hence it is wrong to add another not in the following clause. Another point that needs to be noted is that the only auxiliary that can be used after lest is should.

• Incorrect: Take care lest you do not fall.
• Correct: Take care lest you fall.
• Correct: Take care lest you should fall.

That

That should not be used before the question words what, when, where, whether and why.

• Incorrect: He asked me that what was my name.
• Correct: He asked me what my name was.

No sooner…than

It is wrong to use when instead of than in these sentences.

• Incorrect: No sooner did the lion appear when he shot it down.
• Correct: No sooner did the lion appear than he shot it down.

If no sooner begins the sentence, it should be immediately followed by had or did.

• Incorrect: No sooner the lion appeared than he shot it down.
• Correct: No sooner did the lion appear than he shot it down.

Correct use of some conjunctions

As

As often confused with like. As is a conjunction. It is followed by a clause. Like is  a preposition. It is followed by a noun or a noun equivalent.

• He fought like a lion. (NOT He fought as a lion.)
• He fought as a lion does. (NOT He fought like a lion does.)

As and though

As can be used in the sense of though.

• Though he was sick, he worked diligently.
• Sick as he  was, he worked diligently.
• Though he was young, he fought valiantly.
• Young as he was, he fought valiantly.

As if and as though

These expressions are used more or less synonymously.

She spoke as if she knew everything. (= She spoke as though she knew everything.)

It looks as if/ as though it might rain.

It is wrong to use like in this structure, however, it is widely used in colloquial English.

It looks like it might rain. (Incorrect but common in informal English)

So as

So as indicates purpose.

We started early so as to get a good seat.

Such as

Such as indicates result.

His actions were such as to offend everyone.

Than

Than is a subordinating conjunction. It is usually followed by an object pronoun or a subject pronoun + verb.

• She is taller than him.
• She is taller than he is.
• She earns more than him.
• She earns more than he does.

A subject pronoun without a following verb is uncommon after than.

She is taller than he. (Less common than ‘She is taller than him’.)

Some conjunctions and their uses

Since

As a conjunction since means ‘from the past time when’.

• Where have you been since I last saw you?
• It is just a week since we arrived here.
• I have never seen him since that unfortunate event happened.

The conjunction since may also mean as.

• Since we have no money we can’t buy anything. (= As we have no money we can’t buy anything.)

Or

The conjunction or is used to introduce an alternative.

• Is it green or blue?
• You can have tea or coffee.

Sometimes or is used as an equivalent to and.

• The troops were not wanting in strength or courage, but they were badly fed. (= The troops were not wanting in strength and courage…)

If

The conjunction if means ‘on condition that'; ‘supposing that’.

• If you want to go there I will take you.
• If it rains we shall not go.

If can mean ‘when’ or ‘whenever’.

• If I don’t wear my spectacles, I get a headache.

If is also used to express wish or surprise in the structure if only.

• If only I had known that. (Emphasizing one’s regret that one did not know it.)

That

That is simply a connector. It is used to express a reason or cause.

• His manners are so bad that nobody invites him to a party. (= Nobody invites him to a party because his manners are so bad.)
• Bring it to the light so that I can see it better.