Commonly confused expressions

Here is a quick overview of some phrases and expressions that are commonly confused.

Supposed to / used to
You are not supposed to break the rules. (NOT You are not suppose to break the rules.)

I am used to living alone. (NOT I am use to living alone.)

It is wrong to drop the ‘d’ in supposed and used. However, this is a mistake that many people make.

Beside the point
If something is beside the point, it is not relevant to the point. It is wrong to write ‘besides the point’.

Beside means ‘next to’ or ‘at the side of’. Besides means ‘in addition to.

Couldn’t care less
The expression ‘I could care less’ is always wrong.

I couldn’t care less means ‘I don’t care at all’. However, ‘I could care less’ does not mean that you care a lot.

Whet your appetite
To whet your appetite is to sharpen your appetite. Even mouth-watering delicacies can’t ‘wet your appetite’. The correct expression is ‘whet your appetite’.

Nip it in the bud
To nip something in the bud is to prevent it from growing into something bigger.

Don’t nip it in the butt. That will not solve your problem.

Toe the line
To toe the line is to adhere to a standard or rule. Don’t write ‘tow the line’.

For all intents and purposes
‘For all intents and purposes’ means ‘pretty much’ or ‘almost completely’. It is wrong to write ‘for all intensive purposes’.

Bald-faced lie
A bald-faced lie is an audacious lie. The person who tells a bald-faced lie does not make any attempt to disguise it as truth. However, this does not make it a ‘bold-faced lie’.

Identify the wrong word

Identify the word or phrase that needs to be removed from the sentence to make it grammatically correct.

1. He called me as a fool.

a) called

b) as

c) a

2. This is the house where Jack was born in.

a) where

b) was

c) in

3. I have visited them a couple of times during my stay in Mexico.

a) have

b) couple

c) of

4. I live half of a mile from here.

a) half

b) of

c) a

5. I don’t think so that I will have time.

a) so

b) that

c) will

6. Despite of having a headache I enjoyed the film.

a) despite

b) of

c) having

7. He asked to her why she was angry.

a) to

b) why

c) was

8. He was very kind enough to invite me.

a) very

b) enough

c) to

9. I have bought a chicken in case of Peter stays to lunch.

a) in case

b) of

c) to

10. I want to know as to why I have been detained.

a) as to

b) why

c) been

























Answers

1. as (The sentence should read: He called me a fool.)

2. in (The sentence should read: This is the house where Jack was born.)

3. have (The sentence should read: I visited them a couple of times during my stay in Mexico.)

4. of (The sentence should read: I live half a mile from here.)

5. so (The sentence should read: I don’t think that I will have time.)

6. of (The sentence should read: Despite having a headache I enjoyed the film.)

7. to (The sentence should read: He asked her why she was angry.)

8. very (The sentence should read: He was kind enough to invite me.)

9. of (The sentence should read: I have bought a chicken in case Peter stays to lunch.)

10. as to (The sentence should read: I want to know why I have been detained.)

TOEFL essay writing tips

There are two tasks in the TOEFL Writing section. The first writing task is an integrated task: you will have to listen to a lecture and read a passage. You must then write a summary of both passages.

The second writing task is an independent essay. You have to write an essay of at least 300 words on a given topic. You will have to write on the topic you are given. No choice is available. TOEFL iBT is a computerized test. You have to type both essays on a computer. If you do not know typewriting well, you must practice on a keyboard before your test.

You can cut, copy and paste as you type your essays, but remember that the computer will not check your spelling or grammar. That means you have to do your homework. Learn the spellings of all words you tend to misspell.

General writing strategies
The TOEFL writing section has two tasks. It takes about 50 minutes. Here are a few tips for success on the Writing section.

Organize your thoughts first
Do not start writing as soon the section begins. Instead, use one or two minutes for organizing your ideas. This is very important, because few people are capable of organizing their thoughts in their mind as they write. As a result they will have to edit more.

By organizing your ideas in the beginning itself, you will get an outline for your essay. Once you have got the outline ready, you only need to develop the ideas into paragraphs. However, do not spend more than 2 or 3 minutes on an outline. Remember that you will not get any marks for the outline.

Use familiar vocabulary
Some students try to impress the examiner with complex vocabulary. You must not try this stunt if you are not familiar with these words. Of course, you have to use academic words in your essay. However, they needn’t necessarily be obscure.

General writing tips for TOEFL and IELTS

While writing your TOEFL or IELTS essay, avoid using unfamiliar vocabulary. In a bid to impress the examiner with complex vocabulary, many students commit this mistake.

Instead use the vocabulary you would normally use. During the preparation stage itself try to incorporate new words into your writing. Make it a habit so that you learn their correct usage. You can then use these words while writing your TOEFL essays. However, avoid the temptation to use unfamiliar words on the actual TOEFL test. Remember that to add variety and sophistication to your writing you don’t have to use long, obscure words. In fact, most ideas can be expressed using more common words. You must still make a conscious effort to use precise vocabulary. For example, some English words are used to express a large number of ideas. A common example is the word ‘get’. It can be used to express ideas such as ‘acquire’, ‘catch, ‘earn’, ‘coax’, ‘become’, ‘score’ and so on.

While writing your TOEFL essay, try to use words that express the idea more precisely.

Correct: While holidaying in London, Susie acquired a strong British accent.

Incorrect: While holidaying in London, Susie got a strong British accent.

If you use so many general words, the examiner will not be too happy with your essay.

Use familiar and natural sentence structures

While evaluating your essay, the examiner will pay close attention to your grammatical range and accuracy. That means you will not get a good score if you only write short and simple sentences of the same pattern. If you repeat the same sentence patterns, it will make your writing boring. To avoid this try to use different sentence structures. Also write sentences of various lengths. For example, by writing a long sentence after one or two short sentences you can add variety to your writing. However, you must not use different sentence structures just for the sake of adding variety. Avoid unfamiliar sentence patterns because you are more likely to make grammar mistakes while writing them. Also avoid extremely long sentences. Instead, keep your sentences relatively short.

Common writing mistakes – part 2

UK vs. US Spelling

British and American spellings are different in many ways. It doesn’t really matter which spelling you use while writing. However, you have to remain consistent throughout your writing. So for example, if you intend to use American spelling, stick to it. Do not use American spellings for some words and British spellings for other words.

Avoid excessively long sentences

In a bid to impress the examiner, students often try to write excessively long sentences that contain numerous main and subordinate clauses. Unfortunately, this is not a good practice. When your sentences are too long, your chances of making mistakes are pretty high. This doesn’t necessarily mean that you have to write only simple sentences. Actually, that is not recommended either. If all of your sentences are of the same length, they will make your text boring. Therefore, it is always a good idea to strike a balance between simple and complex sentences. Use them both in your writing, but make sure that your complex sentences are of a manageable length. Although there are no hard and fast rules regarding the length of a sentence, it is always a good idea to limit the number of subordinate clauses to two or three. And at the same time, do not use more than two main clauses in a sentence. By using different sentence patterns, you can add variety and sophistication to your writing.

Bottom-line: Do not use too many conjunctions in a sentence. If you feel that your sentences are too long, re-read them to see if they can be broken up. Your readers will also like shorter sentences because they are easier to understand.

Avoid excessively long paragraphs

Pay attention to the size of your paragraphs. They should be neither too long, nor too short. If you are writing an essay, you can try paragraphs of different lengths. For example, you can write a short paragraph after a long one or vice-versa. This will add variety. Avoid excessively long paragraphs at any cost. For one thing, they will immediately put off the reader. Studies have proved that people are more likely to read shorter pieces of text. They wouldn’t mind reading a long essay or document if it is neatly broken into paragraphs of reasonable length. But if your paragraphs are too long, few people will bother to read in the first place.

In general, you can include three to five paragraphs on an A4 paper. Also make sure that only one main idea or topic is discussed in each paragraph.

Common mistakes in ESL writing – part I

English is an international language. Even in countries where it is not the first language, it is widely taught and used for administrative purposes. For example, in India English is one of the official languages. It is estimated that the number of people for whom English is the second language is much greater than the number of people for whom English is the first language. However, many people who use English as a second language cannot write without mistakes. In this article, we will take a look at some of the most common writing mistakes of ESL students.

Change of narrative

Sometimes students often start writing in the first person and change to the third person. This can cause a lot of confusion. While writing a piece of academic text, it is always a good idea to use the third person narrative. This is an unwritten rule that exists in academia. This doesn’t necessarily mean that you have to totally eliminate the pronouns I and we from your writing. Sometimes it is not possible; sometimes it just doesn't make much sense. However, as far as possible, try to use the impersonal pronoun it instead of the first person pronouns I or we. Of course, it will also mean some changes in the tense and voice. Note that if you use personal pronouns throughout your term paper or essay, it could result in poor grading.

Run-on sentences

This is a very common mistake. If a sentence contains two or more main clauses, they have to be properly connected using a coordinating conjunction. If you do not want to use a conjunction, you have to use an appropriate punctuation mark like semicolon. Alternatively you can split the two clauses using a full-stop.

Improper capitalization

Rules of capitalization are relatively easy to follow. Nonetheless, ESL students sometimes get them wrong.

Always begin a sentence with a capital letter. Capitalize the first letters of proper nouns. Examples are: John, Rahul, Mary, Microsoft etc. Do not capitalize the first letters of common nouns. Examples are: boy, girl, computer etc. The personal pronoun ‘I’ should always be capitalized.

Essay writing: why you must strive for variety and coherence

Every essay is woven around a particular topic. Therefore, finding a topic to write on is the first thing you need to do. The principles of good writing are the same and must be followed at all stages of composition. Every essay begins with a sentence. It just happens to have a large number of sentences in it. Make each sentence grammatically and structurally correct and you have won half the battle.

Variety

Use different sentence patterns in your essay. Variety is essential to retain the reader’s interest. If you write too many sentences of the same pattern, your writing may sound dull and monotonous and the reader may lose interest. To avoid this, use all kinds of sentences in your essay. There should be long and short sentences, simple and complex, straight forward and inverted. Note that a good knowledge of the different techniques of sentence synthesis is essential to add variety and sophistication to your writing.

Variety is necessary; however, it must not be overdone. The idea is to make your essay interesting to read. This is possible only by having a simple and direct approach.

Coherence

Linking words are essential to achieve the effect of unbroken continuity of thought. Most linking words are conjunctions. When used correctly, words like hence, so, therefore, but, or, then etc will connect the sentences up and make the paragraph a well-knit whole.

If ideas have to be contrasted, you can use expressions like on the other hand, on the contrary, however, nevertheless, yet and still. There are also several discourse markers that usually go at the beginning of a clause.

Essays: history and definition

An essay is a piece of composition. Composition is the art of composing an article on a theme or subject. A piece of composition has to be written in clear and grammatically correct English so that it becomes interesting to read. You can write on any topic you like; you can express your thoughts in any way you like. There is no hard and fast rule regarding the size of an essay. It could consist of any number of paragraphs.

History of essays

The first man who used the term essai was a Frenchman called Michel de Montaigne. He wrote about his feelings on certain ideas like idleness, agony etc in the late 1500s. The first English essayist was Sir Francis Bacon who wrote on subjects like death, fear, friendship, studies etc in the early 1600s.

What is an essay?

An essay is a short piece of composition that expresses the writer’s opinion on a particular subject. It is a major form of literature that includes many types of writings such as magazine articles and newspaper editorials.

Structure

An essay has a loose structure. According to Samuel Johnson an essay is ‘an irregular, indigested piece of writing’. However, well-structured essays also exist. Academic essays, for example, follow a well-structured pattern. In any case, structure or its absence doesn’t seem to matter much in the case of essays.

Generally speaking, an essay has an introduction and a conclusion. You can find several paragraphs between the introductory and the ending paragraph.

Type

There are several different types of essays. An essay can be formal or informal, impersonal or familiar. Formal essays tend to have a rigid structure. They are also more expository and systematic. Informal essays, on the other hand, have a personal, intimate and often humorous style. They could even be written in conversational language.

Story writing tips

To tell a story well you need some practice. A good story writer looks ahead as he tells the story and plans it out. To write a good story you must have the whole plot clear in your mind. You must also have the main points arranged in their proper order.

So how does one write a good story? To be a good story writer you must have a fertile imagination. Read extensively and you will find your mind brimming with ideas. Here are a few tips to help you become a better story writer.

Before you start writing, see that you have a clear idea of the plot in your mind. Once you have got the outline ready all that you need to do is to develop the points.

While writing the story, do not omit any point and keep to the order in which the events take place.

Connect the points naturally so that the story will read as a well written piece of composition.

Use your imagination and where possible introduce dialogues. Note that care must be taken to ensure that they sound natural and interesting.

Emphasize the leading points and do not dwell too long on minor details.

The conclusion is the most important part of the story. The whole story must lead up to it naturally and then it should come as a bit of a surprise.

Make sure that your composition is grammatical and idiomatic and in good simple English. Revise your work and if necessary rewrite it until it is as good as you can make it.

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How to write a short story

A short story is a work of fiction. It is a product of the author’s imagination. Every short story has a beginning, a middle part and an ending.

Development of a short story requires careful thought and planning. Not every writer employs the same techniques in writing a short story. Some start with the plot and then create the characters. Others start by creating characters and then allow them to interact. From this interaction, the plot takes shape. Here are a few tips for writing a short story. Note that these are not meant for a seasoned writer who has already mastered the art of story-telling. Nonetheless, a beginner with little or no experience in writing a short story should find these tips helpful.

Step 1: determine the plot

The theme is what the story is about. A theme sometimes conveys a moral. If you have read the Aesop’s Fables you should know what I mean. All of those stories have a message. Some stories are written just for the purpose of conveying a message. The message could be any of the following:

The victory of virtue over vice

Sportsman spirit: It is not about winning; it is about how you play the game

The righteous may have to face huge hardships

Honesty is the best policy

You don’t really have to state the message at the end of the story. As the story develops and ends the reader should be able to comprehend the message.

Step 2: outline the plot

Every story requires a plot. Actually, the story develops from the plot. You can indicate the plot in the opening lines and then develop it gradually. As the plot unfolds characters will appear on the scene and start interacting with one another.

Complications and conflicts

These are an integral part of the plot. Complications and conflicts don’t have to be really complicated. Minor complications will do just fine – it depends upon the plot. Think about events that lead to the conflict. What are the problems that the characters encounter? You can develop complications and conflicts out of the interactions of the characters. Sometimes, destiny can play a role in making your characters’ life complicated.

Develop the crisis

What are the results of the conflict? How do they lead to additional, more complicated conflicts? The conflict or complications should lead to what is called the ‘rising action’. The rising action will create more complications and tension and will raise the story up to the crisis. The crisis is the turning point. It leads to the climax. The climax is the highest point of interest.

Bring the story to an end

Once you have reached the climax, you can’t climb any higher. The conflict and crisis needs to be resolved in the climax. Think about the outcome of the events that lead to the climax. Do these events change the characters or the way they interact with others? Do they learn any lessons? Once the conflict and crisis are resolved the story comes to an end. This final outcome is called the denouement.

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Rewrite in the proper order

The sentences given below are taken from a story, but they are jumbled. That means they are not arranged in their proper order. Rearrange them in their logical sequence.

1. The young man sold his share of the property and left for another country.

2. The father tried to dissuade his son, but he wouldn’t listen to his father whom he regarded as old and ignorant.

3. Years went by. The younger son began to get restless because he was unhappy with his lot.

4. He led a luxurious life and spent a lot of money on gambling.

5. They were living together happily.

6. Soon all his money was gone and he became a pauper.

7. Once there lived a rich farmer.

8. He went to his father and asked for his share of the property.

9. So the father gave him a third of his property.

10. He had two sons.

Solution

Once there lived a rich farmer. He had two sons. They were living together happily. Years went by. The younger son began to get restless because he was unhappy with his lot. He went to his father and asked for his share of the property. The father tried to dissuade his son, but he wouldn’t listen to his father whom he regarded as old and ignorant. So the father gave him a third of his property. The young man sold his share of the property and left for another country. He led a luxurious life and spent a lot of money on gambling. Soon all his money was gone and he became a pauper.

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Adjective phrase

A word group that has an adjective as its head is called an adjective phrase. Note that the adjective in this phrase may be accompanied by other words such as determiners, modifiers etc.

Adjective phrases can go before a noun (attributive position). They can also go after a linking verb like be (predicative position).

• He was wearing a dark brown suit. (Here the adjective phrase ‘a dark brown’ modifies the noun suit.)
• The fish tasted awfully funny. (Here the adjective phrase ‘awfully funny’ says something about the fish. It goes after the copular or linking verb tasted.

A copular verb does not take an object and it cannot be modified by an adverb. The word or phrase that follows a copular verb typically says something about the subject of the sentence.

• The fish tasted awful. (NOT The fish tasted awfully.)

Here the adjective awful says something about the fish. It doesn’t modify the verb tasted.

Note that the adjective in an adjective phrase may be modified by an adverb. When it is modified by an adverb, the adverb goes before the adjective. The adjective may also be modified by other determiners like articles, possessives and demonstratives.

Consider the phrase ‘my cute little daughter’

Here the adjective phrase ‘my cute little’ consists of a possessive (my) and two adjectives (cute and little).

Sometimes the idea expressed by an adjective can also be expressed using a noun phrase. Consider the examples given below.

• Brutus is an honourable man. (Here the adjective honourable modifies the noun man.)

The same idea can be expressed using the phrase: a man of honour

• Brutus is a man of honour.

Another example is given below.

• Churchill was an eminent man. (Here the adjective eminent modifies the noun man.)
• Churchill was a man of eminence. (Here the noun phrase ‘a man of eminence’ means the same as the phrase ‘an eminent man’.)

Adjective or adverb?

Adjectives are words used to modify nouns. They usually go before nouns. Adjectives may also go after be (is, am, are, was, were) and copular verbs like become, seem, look, feel etc.

• I feel happy. (NOT I feel happily.)
• She seemed excited. (NOT She seemed excitedly.)
• They were upset.

Adverbs are words used to modify verbs. They usually express the manner in which something is done. Adverbs are also used to modify adjectives and other adverbs.

An adverb used to modify an adjective or another adverb usually goes before it. Enough is an exception to this rule. It goes after the adjective or adverb it modifies.

Complete the following sentences using the correct words from those given in brackets.

1. Our team played …………………………. (good / well) last week.

2. We have not gathered ………………………… (near / nearly) enough flowers.

3. The old woman was walking …………………………… (slow / slowly) past.

4. Come to my office as ………………………. (quick / quickly) as possible.

5. We had a ……………………….. (really / real) great time at the party.

6. Sophia won the first prize …………………………. (easy / easily)






















Answers

1. Our team played well yesterday. (Here the adverb well modifies the verb played.)

2. We have not gathered nearly enough flowers. (Here the adverb nearly modifies the adjective enough.)

3. The old woman was walking slowly past. (Here the adverb slowly modifies the verb walking.)

4. Come to my office as quickly as possible. (Here the adverb quickly modifies the verb come.)

5. We had a really great time at the party. (Here the adverb really modifies the adjective great.)

6. Sophia won the first prize easily. (Here the adverb easily modifies the verb won.)

Absolute adjectives

Some adjectives express ideas that cannot be graded. For example, a person can’t be more or less dead. In the same way, a sphere can’t be more or less round. In grammars these adjectives are called non-gradable or absolute adjectives.

Non-gradable adjectives do not have comparative or superlative forms. There are very few non-gradable adjectives, so you can learn them by heart if you really want. Here is a list of common non-gradable adjectives in English. Note that this is not a comprehensive list.

Absolute, impossible, principal, adequate, inevitable, sufficient, complete, main, unanimous, unavoidable, entire, minor, fatal, unique, final, universal, ideal, whole, preferable, dead etc.                      
Exceptions

Although the adjectives given above are not normally used in comparative and superlative forms, you might still hear expressions like more complete or most perfect. Though incorrect, these expressions are quite common in speech and they have become sort of acceptable, too. However, if you are a careful user of the language, you must avoid them especially in writing.

Also be careful, not to use more along with a comparative adjective ending in –er and most with a superlative adjective ending in -est. Do not write more taller or most smartest. These are examples of double comparatives and superlatives. They are always wrong and must be avoided.

• She is prettier than her sister. (NOT She is more prettier than her sister.)

Some compound adjectives have two possible comparatives and superlatives.

Positive: good-looking

Comparative: better-looking or more good-looking

Superlative: best-looking or most good-looking

Positive: well-known

Comparative: better-known or more well-known

Superlative: best-known or most well-known

In this case, you can decide which form you want to use, but don’t write most best-known or more better-looking.

Relative pronouns used to introduce adjective clauses

We have already learned that an adjective clause is a group of words that works like an adjective. Adjectives are used to modify nouns. In the same way, adjective clauses are also used to modify nouns.

In this lesson we will take a look at the five relative pronouns used to introduce adjectives clauses. Note that adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.

The most common adjective clauses begin with the relative pronouns who, which and that. Note that who is only used to refer to people and which is only used to refer to things. That can be used to refer to both people and things.

The other two relative pronouns used to introduce adjective clauses are whose and whom. Whose is the possessive form of who. Whom is the object form of who.

• The girl, whose brother we met in the morning, is my sister’s classmate.

Here the relative pronoun whose shows the relationship between the girl and her brother.

Whom can replace object pronouns (him, her, them etc.) Who and whom are often confused. Although it is possible to use whom instead of who in a less formal style, you have to keep the distinction between these forms in academic writing.

Note that when whom is used in a sentence, it will be immediately followed by another noun / pronoun and verb. Who, on the other hand, acts as the subject of the relative clause and hence it is not immediately followed by another noun.

• She married a rich guy whom I have known for quite some time. (Note that whom is immediately followed by another pronoun.)
• She married an engineer who was my senior at university. (NOT She married an engineer whom was my …)

The positive, comparative and superlative degrees

An adjective can exist in three forms – positive, comparative and superlative. The positive form is the base form of the adjective. The comparative form expresses a higher degree of some quality. The superlative form expresses the highest degree.

Fill in the blanks with the comparative or superlative form of the adjective given in the brackets.

1. How is your mother today? Is she any ……………………………………..? (Good)

2. In India May is ……………………………………… than June. (Hot)

3. Julie is …………………………………….. than her sister. (Pretty)

4. Who is the …………………………………… girl in your class? (Beautiful)

5. Which is the …………………………………….. of all metals. (Precious)

6. Her husband is ten years ………………………………………… than her. (Old)

7. All of us are bad singers, but I sing the …………………………………….. of all. (Bad)

8. I think you require a …………………………………….. diet. (Nutritious)

9. Which is the …………………………………… part of India? (Dry)

10. It was the ………………………………….. moment of my life. (Proud)

Answers

1. Is she any better?

2. In India May is hotter than June.

3. Julie is prettier than her sister.

4. Who is the most beautiful girl in your class?

5. Which is the most precious of all metals?

6. Her husband is ten years older than her.

7. All of us are bad singers, but I sing the worst of all.

8. I think you require a more nutritious diet.

9. Which is the driest part of India?

10. It was the proudest moment of my life.

Notes

The comparative adjective is usually followed by the preposition than. The superlative adjective should be used with the article the.

Using adjectives

Adjectives are describing words. Adjectives usually go before the nouns they modify (attributive position). They can also go after the verb be (predicative position). Note that most adjectives can go in both positions.

Study the example sentences given below.

The flowers are red. (Predicative position)

These are red flowers. (Attributive position)

The car is expensive. (Predicative position)

It is an expensive car.

Exercise

Read the following sentences. In all of them, the adjectives are in the predicative position. Change them into the attributive position by rewriting the sentence. Note that the second sentence in the sequence should begin with a pronoun. You will also need to supply a suitable article.

1. The necklace was expensive. …………………………………………………………….

2. The question was tough. …………………………………………………………..

3. The flowers are fresh. …………………………………………………………..

4. The experience was enjoyable. …………………………………………………..

5. The job was tedious. ………………………………………………

6. The memory was painful. ………………………………………………..

7. The woman is experienced. …………………………………………….

8. The workmen are skilled. ………………………………………………..

9. The development was unexpected. ……………………………………………

10. The decision was foolish. …………………………………………………

Answers

1. It was an expensive necklace.

2. It was a tough question.

3. They are fresh flowers.

4. It was an enjoyable experience.

5. It was a tedious job.

6. It was a painful memory.

7. She is an experienced woman.

8. They are skilled workmen.

9. It was an unexpected development.

10. It was a foolish decision.

Word order: position of adjectives

Different kinds of words go in different positions in a sentence. For example, nouns usually go at the beginning of a sentence. Adjectives usually go before nouns. They can also go after verbs. Nouns, too, can go after verbs. The main factor that determines the position of a word is its function. For example, a noun used as the subject of the verb has to go at the beginning of the sentence. A noun used as the object of a verb can only go after the verb. As the placement of words can significantly affect the meaning of a sentence it is important to learn the rules regarding the position of words. Here is a basic guide to word order in English.

Adjectives

Adjectives usually go before the nouns they modify.

• Susie is a beautiful girl. (Here the adjective beautiful goes immediately before the noun (girl) it modifies.)

More examples are given below.

• We met an interesting man.
• That was a wonderful experience.
• She is a great woman.

Note that we cannot put another word between an adjective and the noun it modifies. 

However, we can use any number of adjectives to modify the same noun.

• She married a tall, dark, handsome man.

When more than one adjective modify the same noun, we usually separate them using a comma. No commas are used to separate the last adjective in the series from the noun it modifies.

Adjectives can also go after linking verbs. Note that the most common linking verbs in English are: is, am, are, was, were, become, seem, appear, taste, feel, grow and turn.

When adjectives go after linking verbs, they usually describe the subject.

• Susie is beautiful. (Here the adjective beautiful describes the noun Susie.)
• The fish tasted funny. (Here the adjective funny describes the taste of the fish.)
• The night grew dark.
• The milk turned sour.
• I felt awful.

Mistakes in the use of adjectives

Here is a list of errors that ESL students often make in the use of adjectives.

• Incorrect: She is more stronger than her sister.
• Correct: She is stronger than her sister.

Avoid double comparatives. Adjectives of one syllable usually form their comparatives by adding –er to the positive. Longer adjectives take more.

• Incorrect: Bombay is further from Delhi than Agra.
• Correct: Bombay is farther from Delhi than Agra.

Further means ‘additional’. Farther is used to talk about distance.

• Incorrect: You have much books.
• Correct: You have many books.

• Incorrect: I have many work to do.
• Correct: I have much work to do.

Use much with uncountable nouns. Use many with countable nouns.

• Incorrect: She is growing strong and strong everyday.
• Correct: She is growing stronger and stronger everyday.

The comparative form of the adjective is used in structures like these.

• Incorrect: Let’s go quiet somewhere.
• Correct: Let’s go somewhere quiet.

The adjective usually goes after expressions like somewhere.

• Incorrect: I can’t afford that a big car.
• Correct: I can’t afford that big a car.

Note the pattern: that + adjective + a/an + noun

• Incorrect: Tell me the last news.
• Correct: Tell me the latest news.

Latest means ‘the most recent’. Last means ‘the previous one’.

• Incorrect: I have less worries than you.
• Correct: I have fewer worries than you.

Use less with uncountable nouns. Use fewer with countable nouns.

• Incorrect: He wasted his all wealth.
• Correct: He wasted all his wealth.

Quantifiers like all, both and half go before possessives.

Position of adjectives

Adjectives usually go before the nouns they modify.

• She is a nice girl. (Here the adjective nice modifies the noun girl and goes before it.)

• He is an intelligent boy.

• That was a clever idea.

When two or more adjectives come before a noun, they are usually separated by commas.

• A large, round table

• A short, fair, pretty girl

Note that we do not put a comma after the last adjective in the series.

When the last two are adjectives of color, they are usually separated by and.

• A black and white cow (NOT black white cow)

• Red and blue socks

When two or more adjectives come in the predicative position, we use and between the last two.

• It was hot and sultry.

• The boy was handsome, smart and polite.

• The clouds looked white and fluffy.

Sometimes we put an adjective after the noun for the sake of emphasis.

• There lived an old man strong and wicked. (More emphatic than ‘There lived a strong and wicked old man.’)

In phrases such as those given below, the adjective always comes after the noun.

• Time-immemorial
• Heir-apparent
• God Almighty
• President elect

In lines of poetry, too, the adjective is sometimes put after the noun.

• O men with sisters dear! (Instead of ‘O men with dear sisters’)

Correct use of some adjectives

The adjective can be correctly used with a verb when some quality of the subject, rather the action of the verb, is to be expressed.

• These flowers smell sweet. (NOT These flowers smell sweetly.)
• It tastes sour. (NOT It tastes sourly.)

The plural forms these and those are often used with the singular nouns kind and sort.

Examples are: these kind of things

However, some grammarians insist that we should say: this kind of things

The words superior, inferior, senior, junior, prior, anterior, and posterior take to instead of than.

• He is senior to me.
• James is inferior to Peter’s intelligence.

In comparing two things or classes of things the comparative should be used.

• Take the shorter of the two routes. (NOT Take the shortest of the two routes.)
• Of the two suggestions, the former is better. (NOT Of the two suggestions, the former is the best.)

This rule, however, is not strictly observed. In informal English, the superlative is often used when we talk about one of only two items.

When a comparison is made by means of a comparative, the thing that is compared must be excluded from the things with which it is compared.

• Hercules was stronger than any other man. (NOT Hercules was stronger than any man – this sentence would suggest that Hercules was stronger than Hercules himself, which, of course, is absurd.)

Attributive adjectives after nouns

Most adjectives can go in two main places in a sentence: in attributive position and predicative position.

In attributive position, an adjective comes before the noun it modifies.

• She is a nice girl.
• She married a rich businessman.

In predicative position, an adjective goes after the verb.

• She is nice.
• He looked upset.

While attributive adjectives usually go before the nouns, a few can be used after nouns. This, for example, happens in some fixed phrases.

• Secretary General
• Poet Laureate
• Attorney General
• Court martial

Some adjectives ending in -able/-ible can also be used after nouns.

• It is the only solution possible.
• Book all the tickets available.

After something, everything etc.

Adjectives come after words like something, everything, anything, nothing, somebody, anywhere etc.

• I would like to go somewhere quiet. (NOT I would like to go quiet somewhere.)
• I heard something interesting today. (NOT I heard interesting something today.)

In most expressions of measurement adjectives come after the measurement noun.

• ten years older (NOT Older ten years) (NOT ten older years)
• six feet deep
• two miles long

Verb + object + adjective

Adjectives can be placed after the object.

• You make me happy.
• Can you get the children ready for school?

Distributives

Each, every, either and neither are distributive adjectives. These are normally used with singular nouns.

Position

Distributives are placed immediately before the nouns they qualify.

• Each boy wore a hat.
• Neither answer is correct.
• Every child needs love.

Note
Each, either and neither can be used with plural nouns when they are followed by ‘of’

• Each of the boys wore a hat.
• Neither of the answers is correct.

Each

Each is used when we are talking about the members of a group as individuals.

• Each boy was given a watch.
• Each of the boys was given a watch.

Each and every

Each is preferred when we are thinking of people or things separately, one at a time. Every is similar to all. Every is preferred when we are thinking of people or things together.

• Each patient went to see the doctor. (In turn)
• He gave every patient the same medicine.

Either and Neither

Either and neither are used to talk about distribution between two things.

Either is used in affirmative clauses. Neither is used in negative clauses.

• Which shirt do you want? Either shirt will do.
• I will take either shirt, they are both good.
• Neither answer is correct.
• Neither of them came.

Adjective Phrases

Sometimes a group of words does the work of an adjective.

Study the following examples.

• The mayor was a wealthy man.
• The mayor was a man of great wealth.

In sentence 1, the adjective wealthy says what sort of man the mayor was. 

In sentence 2, the group of words ‘of great wealth’ also says the same thing. It qualifies the noun man as an adjective does. It therefore does the work of an adjective and is called an adjective phrase.

Definition

An adjective phrase is a group of words that does the work of an adjective.

• The magistrate was a kind man. (Here the adjective kind modifies the noun man.)
• The magistrate was a man with a kind heart. (Here the adjective phrase ‘with a kind heart’ modifies the noun man.)
• They lived in a stone house.
• They lived in a house built of stone.
• The workers belonged to a hill tribe.
• The workers belonged to a tribe dwelling in the hills.

Study the following adjectives and the adjective phrases that are equivalent to them.

• A golden necklace – a necklace made of gold
• A white coat – a coat of white color
• A jungle track – a track through the jungle
• A deserted city – a city with no inhabitants
• The French flag – the flag of France
• A wooden hut – a hut built of wood
• A blank page – a page with no writing on it