How to summarize a given passage

In the busy world of today people have little time to read long winding reports and documents. Summaries, on the other hand, are easy to read. They are short and include only information that is relevant.Here are some guidelines for summarizing a passage.
Read the given passage to find out

1. What the passage is about
2. What its tone is
3. What type of writing it is

Find a title for the passage
The title should be a brief statement of the central theme. It should be pointed, not vague.

Read the passage again, as carefully as possible trying to understand every sentence. Since you have already understood the central theme of the passage, it should be easy for you to find out what is important and what is not important.

Anything that is not related to the central theme is irrelevant or superfluous and should not be mentioned the summary.

In the passage the author may have expressed the same idea in different words for emphasis. There is no room for repetition of ideas in a summary.

Examples and illustrations are often easy to dispense with. If you find an example indispensable, it may be included in the summary.

Do not include quotations, metaphors, similes and other figures of speech.

Before you start writing the summary, jot down the important ideas in the passage. Do not copy words and phrases from the passage. As far as possible the summary should be written in your own words.

Summarizing

The summary of a passage is the passage in its shortened form. In a summary, we only express the main ideas. And to keep it short, we must express those ideas in as few words as possible.

What is a good summary?
A good summary must be complete in itself. It must contain all the important information in the passage so that a reader, who doesn't have time to read the original passage, will have no difficulty in understanding what the passage is about.

The summary should be brief, clear and precise. That said, it should not be a number of disjointed simple sentences. You can use linking expressions to connect the ideas.

Give ideas, facts or points in the order in which they are given in the original passage.

If the original passage contains sentences in direct speech, it must be changed into indirect speech in the summary.

The summary must be written in the writer’s own words. As far as possible avoid using the same words that appear in the original passage.

A summary must not contain anything that is not in the original.

How to summarize a given passage?
Read the given passage carefully and try to understand what it means. If you don’t understand it by reading it once, read twice or thrice until you know the details.

Try to find out what the passage is about. Sometimes you will also need to find a suitable title for the summary.

After reading the passage prepare an outline summary containing all the important points.

Prepare your summary with the help of the outline. Do not refer to the original.

If the passage is in poetry, express its ideas in prose.

Learn English Writing

For many ESL students learning to write good English is much more difficult than learning to speak. Even advanced level students face this problem. There are a number of reasons for this:

• Written communication is more formal than spoken communication.
• You have to avoid grammatical or spelling mistakes in written communication.
• Spoken communication, on the other hand, isn’t exactly about grammar: It allows for more grammar mistakes. What’s more, you don’t have to learn spelling to speak.
• People tend to think while writing; not much thought goes into speaking.

The following points can be helpful when considering how to learn English writing skills:

Speaking skills are something that we learn unconsciously. Writing, on the other hand, takes a conscious effort on the part of the learner.

Writing involves the learning of a number of rules and structures.

How to improve one’s writing skills
Good writing skills can be developed with practice. The first thing that you need to do is to learn the grammar rules. Although, you can speak without learning much grammar, you won’t be able to write correct sentences if your knowledge of grammar is poor. So if your job involves a lot of writing, there is no excuse for not learning the rules.

Learn different sentence patterns. These are the basic structures that we use to construct sentences. A basic understanding of the most common sentence patterns will help you to write numerous grammatically correct sentences.

Keep writing. That is true. Your writing skills improve with practice. Therefore, make it a habit to write at least 200 words a day. Keep a diary. In this digital age, blogging is perhaps better than writing a diary. Participate in online forums where people express their ideas in English.

Coherence and transitions

You may have the most convincing ideas in the world. You might have even managed to express them in the most beautiful sentences. However, if these ideas are not properly connected, you will not be able to produce the desired results. Readers should be able to move from one thought to another.

This wouldn’t be possible if you do not use enough connecting devices.

When you provide transitions between ideas, your reader will have no difficulty getting the point.

You can provide transitions between ideas using four techniques: You can, for example, use transitional adverbs; you can repeat keywords or phrases or you can use pronoun reference or parallel form.

Using transitional tags
The most common transitional tags are of course the little conjunctions – and, or, nor, but, so, yet and for. Transitional adverbs are not so simple. Examples are: however, nonetheless, therefore, however, on the other hand etc.

The use of the conjunctions and and but come naturally to most writers.

However, the question whether you can begin a sentence with a conjunction may still arise. Of course, the initial conjunction is a sign that the sentence should have been connected to the previous sentence. However, in many cases, the initial conjunction is a powerful device that calls attention to the sentence. If that is what you want, then you don’t have to connect the two clauses. However, if you begin every one of your sentences with a conjunction, the result can be disastrous.

Here is a list of common transitional adverbs.

Addition
Also, again, and, and then, equally important, besides, first, further, in addition, furthermore, finally, last, in the first place, next, second, too

Comparison
Also, similarly, likewise, in the same way

Concession
Of course, naturally, granted,

Contrast
Although, at the same time, yet, and yet,  but at the same time, even so, despite that, even though, however, for all that, in contrast, instead, in spite of, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the other hand, on the contrary, otherwise, still, regardless, though, yet

Repetition of keywords and phrases

By repeating keywords and phrases, you can create a powerful cohesive effect. Be careful, though; too much repetition can create a ludicrous effect.

Of course, repetition isn’t desirable. However, if it is used correctly, it will make your prose more interesting. The key is finding that word or phrase that is crucial for the reader’s comprehension of the passage. By repeating this word / phrase, you can leave a powerful impact on the reader. Just make sure that you do not overdo it.

Read the sentence given below. It is a quote from Abraham Lincoln.

‘You can fool some of the people all of the time, and all of the people some of the time, but you cannot fool all of the people all of the time.’

This sentence is a classic example of the power of repetition.

Repetition can be employed to connect both sentences and paragraphs.

Pronoun reference
Pronouns avoid the repetition of ideas. They connect ideas because they almost always refer to a noun or noun phrase in the previous sentence.

You can use a pronoun to refer to a noun. The pronouns this, that, these and those can be used to refer to entire sentences.

Make sure that all pronouns have clear references. This is necessary to avoid ambiguity.

Parallelism
Parallelism is the deliberate repetition of phrases or even clauses of the same kind. This is a powerful technique. Inexperienced writers often assume that they cannot repeat the same phrase or clause structures. But that is a wrong assumption. Parallelism within the sentence is highly desirable.

Vary the sentence patterns. For example, you should consider writing a compound sentence after a complex sentence or simple sentence. You should use different types of linking words. All of these techniques add variety to your writing. You must still ensure that every sentence you write has a parallel structure.

Rules of parellelism

Unskillful writers do not always follow the rules of parallelism. They are worried that if they repeat clauses and phrases of the same kind, their writing will be monotonous. That is not true. Of course, you are not supposed to fill your paragraphs with the same kind of sentence patterns. You must still strive to ensure that structures used within the sentence are parallel in structure.

So, for example, if you are creating a list, make sure that all items in the list have the same grammatical property. You can’t create a list consisting of nouns and adjectives. You have to choose either adjectives or nouns.

Incorrect: I like Cathie because she is beautiful, kind and intelligence. (Here we use two adjectives and one noun.)
Correct: I like Cathie because she is beautiful, kind and intelligent. (Here we use three adjectives.)
Correct: I admire Cathie for her beauty, intelligence and kindness. (Here we use three nouns.)

Incorrect: Formerly, science subjects were taught by the textbook method, while now the laboratory method is used.
Correct: Formerly, science subjects were taught by the textbook method; now they are taught by the laboratory method.

By this principle, if an article or a preposition applies to all the items in a list, it should be used only before the first item. Or you can repeat it before each item.

Incorrect: The robin sings in summer, winter, spring and in autumn.
Correct: The robin sings in summer, winter, spring and autumn.
Correct: The robin sings in summer, in winter, in spring and in autumn.

Rules for writing numbers

While writing numbers, sometimes we use figures or digits and sometimes we write out the number in words. Here is a quick overview of the rules for writing numbers.

Small numbers

Numbers smaller than ten should be spelled out.

• Two birds were sitting on a branch. (NOT ‘2 birds were sitting on a branch.’)

Two-word numbers should be expressed in figures. Examples are: 24, 32, 56 etc.

• I got only 35 marks in English. (More natural than I got only thirty-five marks in English.)

One-word numbers can be spelled out. Examples are: eleven, thirteen, twenty, thirty etc.

When writing large number we often use commas.

• There are 746,372 voters in this constituency.

The period is used as a decimal separator. Example: 10.5

The International Systems of Units (SI) does not recommend the use of commas or periods.
SI recommends that a space should be used to separate groups of three digits.

• He earns $1 500 000 a year.

You cannot begin a sentence with a numeral.

• Write ‘Twenty years ago…’ (NOT 20 years ago…)

Sometimes you will have to change the structure of the sentence to remove the numeral from the beginning.

• Write ‘They sold 400,000 copies on the first day’ instead of ‘400,000 copies were sold on the first day.’

Centuries should be spelled out.

• In the nineteenth century

But some writers also use a combination of numbers and letters. Example: 19th century

Percentages

In a less formal style, you can use the symbol %. In formal writing, you should spell the percentage out.

• She got 96% marks. (Informal)
• She got 96 percent marks. (Formal)

The rules of capitalization

The rules of capitalization in English can be quite confusing. Most students understand that they should begin a sentence with a capital letter. They also understand that proper nouns (e.g. Mark, Mary) should be capitalized.

However, the most common mistakes occur with national adjectives and the names of languages.

If you find the rules of capitalization confusing, this article will be helpful to you.

• Capitalize ‘I’
• Capitalize the names of countries. Examples: Japan, America, Russia
• Capitalize national nouns and adjectives. Examples: Chinese, Russian, French, British
• Capitalize the first letter of the first word in a sentence or question.
• Capitalize proper nouns (i.e. the names of people). Examples: John, Mary, Annie
• Do not capitalize common nouns. Examples: boy, tree, flower, butterfly
• Capitalize the names of institutions, organizations etc.
• Capitalize the names of festivals. Examples: Id, Diwali, Easter, Christmas

Study the examples given below.

• He went to university.

University is a common noun and hence we do not capitalize it.

• He went to Oxford University. (NOT He went to oxford university.)

The names of universities, organizations, institutions, mountains, deserts and rivers are capitalized. Note that when you write the name of a university or an organization, all words in the name begin with capital letters.

Examples

• British Broadcasting Corporation (NOT British broadcasting corporation)
• United Nations Organization (NOT United nations organization)

Notes
In British English, the article ‘the’ is not normally used before the names of universities, public buildings or organizations. However, in American English, ‘the’ is more often used in such cases.

• He studied at the Harvard University. (US)

Correct the mistakes in the following sentences.

1. He introduced me to mary, his wife.

2. I don’t understand french, but I can speak a little spanish.

3. They went skiing in the alps.

4. She bought a new Car for her birthday.

5. Peter comes from new england.









































Answers

1. He introduced me to Mary, his wife.

2. I don’t understand French, but I can speak a little Spanish.

3. They went skiing in the Alps.

4. She bought a new car for her birthday.

5. Peter comes from New England.

Mixed constructions

A sentence must have two parts – the subject and the predicate.

The subject is what the sentence is about and the predicate is what we are going to say about the subject.

If the sentence is to make complete sense, we have to put the two parts together in reasonable ways.

Problems with the adverb clause
When we write a sentence the subject normally goes at the beginning. Of course, there are exceptions to this rule.

Consider the following sentence.

• Sweet are the uses of adversity.

Here the real subject ‘the uses of adversity’ goes at the end of the sentence which begins with an adjective. But as we have already said, this is an exception rather than the rule and we most often begin simple sentences with subjects.

A simple sentence has just one clause. A complex sentence, on the other hand, may have two or more clauses (one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses).

A complex sentence can begin with a subordinate adverb clause.

But note that an adverb clause can’t act as a noun; it can’t be a subject. It can merely modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb in the main clause.

A prepositional phrase, too, cannot act as the subject of an independent clause. It can begin a sentence, but it can’t act as the subject.

Study the examples given below.

• Incorrect: In his attempt to win the election broke several rules about pre-poll publicity.
• Correct: In his attempt to win the election, the candidate broke several rules about pre-poll publicity.
• Correct: The candidate’s attempt to win the election broke several rules about pre-poll publicity.

In the incorrect sentence given above, a prepositional phrase was used in the place of a subject.

A clause needs just one subject, but sometimes we incorrectly write sentences which actually have two subjects in a situation that calls for just one.

• Incorrect: The new automated answering machine we began to use it in the fall.
• Correct: We began to use the new automated answering machine in the fall.

Sentences: simple and compound

There are mainly three kinds of sentences in English: simple, complex and compound.

Simple sentence
A simple sentence consists of just one clause. Examples are given below.

• The dog barks.
• The kettle boils.
• Birds live in nests.
• The boys are singing.

In its simplest form, a simple sentence consists of a subject and a verb.

We can add more meaning to the sentence by including qualifiers, objects, complements etc.

• Sitting on a branch, the monkey gibbered.
• The little girl was carrying a basket on her head.

Compound sentence
A compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses.

• The boys sang and the girls danced.

This compound sentence consists of two simple clauses connected by the coordinating conjunction and.

Another example is given below.

• Men may come and men may go, but I go on forever.

This compound sentence consists of three independent clauses.

We make compound sentences by joining independent clauses with the help of coordinating conjunctions.

More examples of compound sentences are given below.

• You may watch TV or you can go out to play.
• You should either sit quietly or go out.
• The old man could neither see nor hear.
• He took the test several times but he couldn't pass.
• He is famous, yet he is very humble.
• She was angry, still she kept her cool.
• The thieves not only robbed the man of his possessions, but also inflicted injuries on him.

Notes

The words however, therefore and nevertheless are not conjunctions. They cannot be used to connect two independent clauses.

• My car broke down on the way; therefore, I hired a taxi. (NOT My car broke down on the way, therefore I hired a taxi.)
• He lost all his money; nevertheless, he is cheerful.

Two independent clauses need to be connected with a coordinating conjunction or separated with a full stop or a semicolon.

Most common idiomatic expressions in English

The English language is full of idiomatic expressions. While it is nearly impossible to learn all of these expressions, you should be familiar with the most important ones. Here is a list of the most widely used idiomatic expressions in English.

A penny for your thoughts

This expression is another way of asking what somebody is thinking.

Add insult to injury

To add insult to injury is to make a bad situation worse.

A hot potato

A hot potato is a topic or an issue that is widely discussed.

Once in a blue moon

If something happens once in a blue moon it happens very rarely.

Caught between two stools

When you are caught between two stools, you have difficulty choosing between two alternatives.

See eye to eye

When two people see eye to eye, they agree on something.

Hear it on the grapevine

To hear it on the grapevine is to hear a rumor.

Miss the boat

To miss the boat is to miss your chance at something.

Kill two birds with one stone

To kill two birds with one stone is to do two profitable things at the same time.

On the ball

When you are on the ball, you understand the situation very well.

Cut corners

To cut corners is to do something badly to save money.

Costs and arm and a leg

If something costs and arm and a leg, it is very expensive.

Sit on the fence

When you sit on the fence, you don’t make a decision.

Expressions with speak

Here is a list of idiomatic expressions using the word speak. Each expression is followed by its meaning or definition. Example sentences are also given.

Broadly speaking / generally speaking

This expression is used when you talk about something in general.

• Generally speaking, people are nice when you are nice to them.

no…to speak of

This is used for saying that something is not important.

• She has no experience to speak of.

Not on speaking terms

When you are not on speaking terms with another person, you are very angry with them and won’t talk to them.

• He and his wife are not on speaking terms.

Speak for itself

If something speaks for itself, it is clearly so good.

• Her success as a writer speaks for itself.

Speak for yourself

Use this expression to suggest that your opinion is different from that of others.

• ‘No one wants to go to the theater tonight.’ ‘Speak for yourself! I do.’

Speaking of

This expression is used to introduce something new.

• Speaking of money, have you paid the utility bill?

Speak your mind

To speak your mind is to say what you think even if it hurts or offends others.

• I like her because she speaks her mind.
• She was a strong-willed woman who always spoke her mind.

Speak volumes

If something speaks volumes it provides a lot of information.

• His silence on the issue speaks volumes.

Comma before and after conjunctions

Comma after so
When so is used to mean therefore, it is a transitional adverb. So, it should be followed by a comma.

• I was not feeling well. So, I decided to consult a doctor.

Semicolon before And
A coordinating conjunction that merges two clauses into one is usually preceded by a comma. However, the comma can be left out when the clauses connected by the conjunction are very short.

• The boys sang, and the girls danced.

The comma is not exactly necessary in the example given above because the clauses are short. However, it is possible.

If one or both of the clauses connected by a conjunction contains a comma, we sometimes use a semicolon instead of a comma. Note that although a semicolon is possible here, it may look dated.

• Alan, Sophie and Mira absolutely love the steak pie; but Maria, a staunch vegetarian, detests it.

Here the two clauses are connected by the coordinating conjunction but. However, we separate them using a semicolon because the second clause contains two commas.

Note that a semicolon is not exactly necessary here. A comma will work just fine. In fact, a comma tends to be more common than a semicolon.

• Alan, Sophie and Mira absolutely love the steak pie, but Maria, a staunch vegetarian, detests it.

That-clauses
Commas are not used before that-clauses.

She said that she would come. (NOT She said, that she would come.)

Notes
A that-clause is essentially a noun clause that serves as the subject or object of the verb in the main clause.

Comma before subordinate clauses
When subordinate clauses come at the beginning of sentences we usually separate them with a comma. The comma can be left out when the subordinate clause goes after the main clause.

Because he had been reading my letters without my knowledge, I was quite angry with him.

I was quite angry with him because he had been reading my letters without my knowledge.

Comma with conjunctions

Conjunctions do not normally cause major grammatical errors. However, students sometimes incorrectly use two conjunctions to connect two clauses. In English, we need just one conjunction to connect two clauses. If there are four clauses in the sentence, we need just three conjunctions to connect them.

Another common problem is the confusion about the placement of comma. Sometimes we use a comma before a conjunction. Sometimes we do not use a comma.

When subordinate clauses begin a sentence, we usually separate them from the rest of the sentence with a comma. When the subordinate clause goes after the main clause, the comma can be left out.

While there are no simple rules regarding the placement of comma with conjunctions, the following guidelines should help.

Comma before the final item in a list

We use commas to separate items in a series or list. The last two items in a list are usually connected by and. In British English, it is quite unusual to use a comma with and.

• I visited France, Germany, Italy, Britain and Spain. (GB)
• I visited France, Germany, Italy, Britain, and Spain. (US)

Notes

When there are just two items in a list, a comma is not necessary before and.

I met John and Mary. (NOT I met John, and Mary.)

When there are more than two items, some people prefer to use a comma before and. Some people do not use a comma. There is no right or wrong answer here. Pick a convention and then stick with it. That’s all.

The comma that goes before the conjunction is called the Oxford Comma. Interestingly, although it is called Oxford Comma, it is mainly used by writers in the US.

• I bought some milk, eggs, and butter. (List with Oxford Comma)
• I bought some milk, eggs and butter. (List without Oxford Comma)

Common comma errors

Comma is a very common punctuation mark. It is used to indicate a slight pause within a sentence. Students often misuse commas. If you don’t know whether a comma is appropriate in a particular sentence, try reading the sentence aloud. If the sentence sounds better without a pause, omit the comma. If it sounds better with a pause, add a comma. Don’t scatter commas throughout your writing.

Common mistakes in the use of commas

Do not place a comma between two verbs.

• The children were singing and dancing. (NOT The children were singing, and dancing.)

Use a comma to separate independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (e.g. and, but, or, so, yet, nor).

• She was not feeling very well, but she went to work.

However, the comma can be avoided when the clauses are too short.

When an adverb clause comes at the beginning of a sentence, we usually separate it with a comma.

• After she finished her homework, she watched TV.
• As I was walking down the street, I saw him driving a Ferrari.

The comma is not necessary when the main clause comes at the beginning of the sentence.

• She watched TV after she finished her homework.

Two clauses that are not connected by a coordinating conjunction cannot be separated by a comma.

• She was tired and went to bed. (NOT She was tired she went to bed.)

When a sentence begins with a conjunctive adverb, you need to separate the adverb with a comma.

• She was tired. Therefore, she decided to get some rest. (NOT She was tired. Therefore she decided to get some rest.)

Semicolon before a transitional phrase

A transitional phrase is essentially a word or phrase used to show the relationship between two clauses or paragraphs. Transitional phrases (also called conjunctive adverbs) usually come at the beginning of a sentence and are separated from the rest of the sentence with a comma. Common examples of transitional phrases are: however, therefore, consequently, furthermore, moreover, even as etc.

Read the sentences given below.

• The train was an hour late. In spite of this, I managed to get to the meeting in time.

Here the phrase ‘in spite of this’ acts as a transitional adverb. As you can see, it does not connect the two clauses. It merely shows how ideas are connected.

We usually use a full stop before a transitional phrase. Sometimes writers use semi-colons instead of full stops. An advantage of using this method is that it makes the transition between the sentences even more seamless.

• She had little chance of success. Nevertheless, she decided to enter the competition.
• OR She had little chance of success; nevertheless, she decided to enter the competition.
• I cannot attend your wedding. However, my blessings are always with you.
• OR I cannot attend your wedding; however, my blessings are always with you.

Note that you cannot use a comma to separate the two sentences. This is a common punctuation mistake.

• I want to pass the test. Therefore, I work hard. OR I want to pass the test; therefore, I work hard. (BUT NOT I want to pass the test, therefore, I work hard.)