How to summarize a given passage

In the busy world of today people have little time to read long winding reports and documents. Summaries, on the other hand, are easy to read. They are short and include only information that is relevant.Here are some guidelines for summarizing a passage.
Read the given passage to find out

1. What the passage is about
2. What its tone is
3. What type of writing it is

Find a title for the passage
The title should be a brief statement of the central theme. It should be pointed, not vague.

Read the passage again, as carefully as possible trying to understand every sentence. Since you have already understood the central theme of the passage, it should be easy for you to find out what is important and what is not important.

Anything that is not related to the central theme is irrelevant or superfluous and should not be mentioned the summary.

In the passage the author may have expressed the same idea in different words for emphasis. There is no room for repetition of ideas in a summary.

Examples and illustrations are often easy to dispense with. If you find an example indispensable, it may be included in the summary.

Do not include quotations, metaphors, similes and other figures of speech.

Before you start writing the summary, jot down the important ideas in the passage. Do not copy words and phrases from the passage. As far as possible the summary should be written in your own words.

Summarizing

The summary of a passage is the passage in its shortened form. In a summary, we only express the main ideas. And to keep it short, we must express those ideas in as few words as possible.

What is a good summary?
A good summary must be complete in itself. It must contain all the important information in the passage so that a reader, who doesn't have time to read the original passage, will have no difficulty in understanding what the passage is about.

The summary should be brief, clear and precise. That said, it should not be a number of disjointed simple sentences. You can use linking expressions to connect the ideas.

Give ideas, facts or points in the order in which they are given in the original passage.

If the original passage contains sentences in direct speech, it must be changed into indirect speech in the summary.

The summary must be written in the writer’s own words. As far as possible avoid using the same words that appear in the original passage.

A summary must not contain anything that is not in the original.

How to summarize a given passage?
Read the given passage carefully and try to understand what it means. If you don’t understand it by reading it once, read twice or thrice until you know the details.

Try to find out what the passage is about. Sometimes you will also need to find a suitable title for the summary.

After reading the passage prepare an outline summary containing all the important points.

Prepare your summary with the help of the outline. Do not refer to the original.

If the passage is in poetry, express its ideas in prose.

Learn English Writing

For many ESL students learning to write good English is much more difficult than learning to speak. Even advanced level students face this problem. There are a number of reasons for this:

• Written communication is more formal than spoken communication.
• You have to avoid grammatical or spelling mistakes in written communication.
• Spoken communication, on the other hand, isn’t exactly about grammar: It allows for more grammar mistakes. What’s more, you don’t have to learn spelling to speak.
• People tend to think while writing; not much thought goes into speaking.

The following points can be helpful when considering how to learn English writing skills:

Speaking skills are something that we learn unconsciously. Writing, on the other hand, takes a conscious effort on the part of the learner.

Writing involves the learning of a number of rules and structures.

How to improve one’s writing skills
Good writing skills can be developed with practice. The first thing that you need to do is to learn the grammar rules. Although, you can speak without learning much grammar, you won’t be able to write correct sentences if your knowledge of grammar is poor. So if your job involves a lot of writing, there is no excuse for not learning the rules.

Learn different sentence patterns. These are the basic structures that we use to construct sentences. A basic understanding of the most common sentence patterns will help you to write numerous grammatically correct sentences.

Keep writing. That is true. Your writing skills improve with practice. Therefore, make it a habit to write at least 200 words a day. Keep a diary. In this digital age, blogging is perhaps better than writing a diary. Participate in online forums where people express their ideas in English.

Coherence and transitions

You may have the most convincing ideas in the world. You might have even managed to express them in the most beautiful sentences. However, if these ideas are not properly connected, you will not be able to produce the desired results. Readers should be able to move from one thought to another.

This wouldn’t be possible if you do not use enough connecting devices.

When you provide transitions between ideas, your reader will have no difficulty getting the point.

You can provide transitions between ideas using four techniques: You can, for example, use transitional adverbs; you can repeat keywords or phrases or you can use pronoun reference or parallel form.

Using transitional tags
The most common transitional tags are of course the little conjunctions – and, or, nor, but, so, yet and for. Transitional adverbs are not so simple. Examples are: however, nonetheless, therefore, however, on the other hand etc.

The use of the conjunctions and and but come naturally to most writers.

However, the question whether you can begin a sentence with a conjunction may still arise. Of course, the initial conjunction is a sign that the sentence should have been connected to the previous sentence. However, in many cases, the initial conjunction is a powerful device that calls attention to the sentence. If that is what you want, then you don’t have to connect the two clauses. However, if you begin every one of your sentences with a conjunction, the result can be disastrous.

Here is a list of common transitional adverbs.

Addition
Also, again, and, and then, equally important, besides, first, further, in addition, furthermore, finally, last, in the first place, next, second, too

Comparison
Also, similarly, likewise, in the same way

Concession
Of course, naturally, granted,

Contrast
Although, at the same time, yet, and yet,  but at the same time, even so, despite that, even though, however, for all that, in contrast, instead, in spite of, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the other hand, on the contrary, otherwise, still, regardless, though, yet

Repetition of keywords and phrases

By repeating keywords and phrases, you can create a powerful cohesive effect. Be careful, though; too much repetition can create a ludicrous effect.

Of course, repetition isn’t desirable. However, if it is used correctly, it will make your prose more interesting. The key is finding that word or phrase that is crucial for the reader’s comprehension of the passage. By repeating this word / phrase, you can leave a powerful impact on the reader. Just make sure that you do not overdo it.

Read the sentence given below. It is a quote from Abraham Lincoln.

‘You can fool some of the people all of the time, and all of the people some of the time, but you cannot fool all of the people all of the time.’

This sentence is a classic example of the power of repetition.

Repetition can be employed to connect both sentences and paragraphs.

Pronoun reference
Pronouns avoid the repetition of ideas. They connect ideas because they almost always refer to a noun or noun phrase in the previous sentence.

You can use a pronoun to refer to a noun. The pronouns this, that, these and those can be used to refer to entire sentences.

Make sure that all pronouns have clear references. This is necessary to avoid ambiguity.

Parallelism
Parallelism is the deliberate repetition of phrases or even clauses of the same kind. This is a powerful technique. Inexperienced writers often assume that they cannot repeat the same phrase or clause structures. But that is a wrong assumption. Parallelism within the sentence is highly desirable.

Vary the sentence patterns. For example, you should consider writing a compound sentence after a complex sentence or simple sentence. You should use different types of linking words. All of these techniques add variety to your writing. You must still ensure that every sentence you write has a parallel structure.

Rules of parellelism

Unskillful writers do not always follow the rules of parallelism. They are worried that if they repeat clauses and phrases of the same kind, their writing will be monotonous. That is not true. Of course, you are not supposed to fill your paragraphs with the same kind of sentence patterns. You must still strive to ensure that structures used within the sentence are parallel in structure.

So, for example, if you are creating a list, make sure that all items in the list have the same grammatical property. You can’t create a list consisting of nouns and adjectives. You have to choose either adjectives or nouns.

Incorrect: I like Cathie because she is beautiful, kind and intelligence. (Here we use two adjectives and one noun.)
Correct: I like Cathie because she is beautiful, kind and intelligent. (Here we use three adjectives.)
Correct: I admire Cathie for her beauty, intelligence and kindness. (Here we use three nouns.)

Incorrect: Formerly, science subjects were taught by the textbook method, while now the laboratory method is used.
Correct: Formerly, science subjects were taught by the textbook method; now they are taught by the laboratory method.

By this principle, if an article or a preposition applies to all the items in a list, it should be used only before the first item. Or you can repeat it before each item.

Incorrect: The robin sings in summer, winter, spring and in autumn.
Correct: The robin sings in summer, winter, spring and autumn.
Correct: The robin sings in summer, in winter, in spring and in autumn.

Rules for writing numbers

While writing numbers, sometimes we use figures or digits and sometimes we write out the number in words. Here is a quick overview of the rules for writing numbers.

Small numbers

Numbers smaller than ten should be spelled out.

• Two birds were sitting on a branch. (NOT ‘2 birds were sitting on a branch.’)

Two-word numbers should be expressed in figures. Examples are: 24, 32, 56 etc.

• I got only 35 marks in English. (More natural than I got only thirty-five marks in English.)

One-word numbers can be spelled out. Examples are: eleven, thirteen, twenty, thirty etc.

When writing large number we often use commas.

• There are 746,372 voters in this constituency.

The period is used as a decimal separator. Example: 10.5

The International Systems of Units (SI) does not recommend the use of commas or periods.
SI recommends that a space should be used to separate groups of three digits.

• He earns $1 500 000 a year.

You cannot begin a sentence with a numeral.

• Write ‘Twenty years ago…’ (NOT 20 years ago…)

Sometimes you will have to change the structure of the sentence to remove the numeral from the beginning.

• Write ‘They sold 400,000 copies on the first day’ instead of ‘400,000 copies were sold on the first day.’

Centuries should be spelled out.

• In the nineteenth century

But some writers also use a combination of numbers and letters. Example: 19th century

Percentages

In a less formal style, you can use the symbol %. In formal writing, you should spell the percentage out.

• She got 96% marks. (Informal)
• She got 96 percent marks. (Formal)

The rules of capitalization

The rules of capitalization in English can be quite confusing. Most students understand that they should begin a sentence with a capital letter. They also understand that proper nouns (e.g. Mark, Mary) should be capitalized.

However, the most common mistakes occur with national adjectives and the names of languages.

If you find the rules of capitalization confusing, this article will be helpful to you.

• Capitalize ‘I’
• Capitalize the names of countries. Examples: Japan, America, Russia
• Capitalize national nouns and adjectives. Examples: Chinese, Russian, French, British
• Capitalize the first letter of the first word in a sentence or question.
• Capitalize proper nouns (i.e. the names of people). Examples: John, Mary, Annie
• Do not capitalize common nouns. Examples: boy, tree, flower, butterfly
• Capitalize the names of institutions, organizations etc.
• Capitalize the names of festivals. Examples: Id, Diwali, Easter, Christmas

Study the examples given below.

• He went to university.

University is a common noun and hence we do not capitalize it.

• He went to Oxford University. (NOT He went to oxford university.)

The names of universities, organizations, institutions, mountains, deserts and rivers are capitalized. Note that when you write the name of a university or an organization, all words in the name begin with capital letters.

Examples

• British Broadcasting Corporation (NOT British broadcasting corporation)
• United Nations Organization (NOT United nations organization)

Notes
In British English, the article ‘the’ is not normally used before the names of universities, public buildings or organizations. However, in American English, ‘the’ is more often used in such cases.

• He studied at the Harvard University. (US)

Correct the mistakes in the following sentences.

1. He introduced me to mary, his wife.

2. I don’t understand french, but I can speak a little spanish.

3. They went skiing in the alps.

4. She bought a new Car for her birthday.

5. Peter comes from new england.









































Answers

1. He introduced me to Mary, his wife.

2. I don’t understand French, but I can speak a little Spanish.

3. They went skiing in the Alps.

4. She bought a new car for her birthday.

5. Peter comes from New England.

Mixed constructions

A sentence must have two parts – the subject and the predicate.

The subject is what the sentence is about and the predicate is what we are going to say about the subject.

If the sentence is to make complete sense, we have to put the two parts together in reasonable ways.

Problems with the adverb clause
When we write a sentence the subject normally goes at the beginning. Of course, there are exceptions to this rule.

Consider the following sentence.

• Sweet are the uses of adversity.

Here the real subject ‘the uses of adversity’ goes at the end of the sentence which begins with an adjective. But as we have already said, this is an exception rather than the rule and we most often begin simple sentences with subjects.

A simple sentence has just one clause. A complex sentence, on the other hand, may have two or more clauses (one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses).

A complex sentence can begin with a subordinate adverb clause.

But note that an adverb clause can’t act as a noun; it can’t be a subject. It can merely modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb in the main clause.

A prepositional phrase, too, cannot act as the subject of an independent clause. It can begin a sentence, but it can’t act as the subject.

Study the examples given below.

• Incorrect: In his attempt to win the election broke several rules about pre-poll publicity.
• Correct: In his attempt to win the election, the candidate broke several rules about pre-poll publicity.
• Correct: The candidate’s attempt to win the election broke several rules about pre-poll publicity.

In the incorrect sentence given above, a prepositional phrase was used in the place of a subject.

A clause needs just one subject, but sometimes we incorrectly write sentences which actually have two subjects in a situation that calls for just one.

• Incorrect: The new automated answering machine we began to use it in the fall.
• Correct: We began to use the new automated answering machine in the fall.

Sentences: simple and compound

There are mainly three kinds of sentences in English: simple, complex and compound.

Simple sentence
A simple sentence consists of just one clause. Examples are given below.

• The dog barks.
• The kettle boils.
• Birds live in nests.
• The boys are singing.

In its simplest form, a simple sentence consists of a subject and a verb.

We can add more meaning to the sentence by including qualifiers, objects, complements etc.

• Sitting on a branch, the monkey gibbered.
• The little girl was carrying a basket on her head.

Compound sentence
A compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses.

• The boys sang and the girls danced.

This compound sentence consists of two simple clauses connected by the coordinating conjunction and.

Another example is given below.

• Men may come and men may go, but I go on forever.

This compound sentence consists of three independent clauses.

We make compound sentences by joining independent clauses with the help of coordinating conjunctions.

More examples of compound sentences are given below.

• You may watch TV or you can go out to play.
• You should either sit quietly or go out.
• The old man could neither see nor hear.
• He took the test several times but he couldn't pass.
• He is famous, yet he is very humble.
• She was angry, still she kept her cool.
• The thieves not only robbed the man of his possessions, but also inflicted injuries on him.

Notes

The words however, therefore and nevertheless are not conjunctions. They cannot be used to connect two independent clauses.

• My car broke down on the way; therefore, I hired a taxi. (NOT My car broke down on the way, therefore I hired a taxi.)
• He lost all his money; nevertheless, he is cheerful.

Two independent clauses need to be connected with a coordinating conjunction or separated with a full stop or a semicolon.

Most common idiomatic expressions in English

The English language is full of idiomatic expressions. While it is nearly impossible to learn all of these expressions, you should be familiar with the most important ones. Here is a list of the most widely used idiomatic expressions in English.

A penny for your thoughts

This expression is another way of asking what somebody is thinking.

Add insult to injury

To add insult to injury is to make a bad situation worse.

A hot potato

A hot potato is a topic or an issue that is widely discussed.

Once in a blue moon

If something happens once in a blue moon it happens very rarely.

Caught between two stools

When you are caught between two stools, you have difficulty choosing between two alternatives.

See eye to eye

When two people see eye to eye, they agree on something.

Hear it on the grapevine

To hear it on the grapevine is to hear a rumor.

Miss the boat

To miss the boat is to miss your chance at something.

Kill two birds with one stone

To kill two birds with one stone is to do two profitable things at the same time.

On the ball

When you are on the ball, you understand the situation very well.

Cut corners

To cut corners is to do something badly to save money.

Costs and arm and a leg

If something costs and arm and a leg, it is very expensive.

Sit on the fence

When you sit on the fence, you don’t make a decision.

Expressions with speak

Here is a list of idiomatic expressions using the word speak. Each expression is followed by its meaning or definition. Example sentences are also given.

Broadly speaking / generally speaking

This expression is used when you talk about something in general.

• Generally speaking, people are nice when you are nice to them.

no…to speak of

This is used for saying that something is not important.

• She has no experience to speak of.

Not on speaking terms

When you are not on speaking terms with another person, you are very angry with them and won’t talk to them.

• He and his wife are not on speaking terms.

Speak for itself

If something speaks for itself, it is clearly so good.

• Her success as a writer speaks for itself.

Speak for yourself

Use this expression to suggest that your opinion is different from that of others.

• ‘No one wants to go to the theater tonight.’ ‘Speak for yourself! I do.’

Speaking of

This expression is used to introduce something new.

• Speaking of money, have you paid the utility bill?

Speak your mind

To speak your mind is to say what you think even if it hurts or offends others.

• I like her because she speaks her mind.
• She was a strong-willed woman who always spoke her mind.

Speak volumes

If something speaks volumes it provides a lot of information.

• His silence on the issue speaks volumes.

Comma before and after conjunctions

Comma after so
When so is used to mean therefore, it is a transitional adverb. So, it should be followed by a comma.

• I was not feeling well. So, I decided to consult a doctor.

Semicolon before And
A coordinating conjunction that merges two clauses into one is usually preceded by a comma. However, the comma can be left out when the clauses connected by the conjunction are very short.

• The boys sang, and the girls danced.

The comma is not exactly necessary in the example given above because the clauses are short. However, it is possible.

If one or both of the clauses connected by a conjunction contains a comma, we sometimes use a semicolon instead of a comma. Note that although a semicolon is possible here, it may look dated.

• Alan, Sophie and Mira absolutely love the steak pie; but Maria, a staunch vegetarian, detests it.

Here the two clauses are connected by the coordinating conjunction but. However, we separate them using a semicolon because the second clause contains two commas.

Note that a semicolon is not exactly necessary here. A comma will work just fine. In fact, a comma tends to be more common than a semicolon.

• Alan, Sophie and Mira absolutely love the steak pie, but Maria, a staunch vegetarian, detests it.

That-clauses
Commas are not used before that-clauses.

She said that she would come. (NOT She said, that she would come.)

Notes
A that-clause is essentially a noun clause that serves as the subject or object of the verb in the main clause.

Comma before subordinate clauses
When subordinate clauses come at the beginning of sentences we usually separate them with a comma. The comma can be left out when the subordinate clause goes after the main clause.

Because he had been reading my letters without my knowledge, I was quite angry with him.

I was quite angry with him because he had been reading my letters without my knowledge.

Comma with conjunctions

Conjunctions do not normally cause major grammatical errors. However, students sometimes incorrectly use two conjunctions to connect two clauses. In English, we need just one conjunction to connect two clauses. If there are four clauses in the sentence, we need just three conjunctions to connect them.

Another common problem is the confusion about the placement of comma. Sometimes we use a comma before a conjunction. Sometimes we do not use a comma.

When subordinate clauses begin a sentence, we usually separate them from the rest of the sentence with a comma. When the subordinate clause goes after the main clause, the comma can be left out.

While there are no simple rules regarding the placement of comma with conjunctions, the following guidelines should help.

Comma before the final item in a list

We use commas to separate items in a series or list. The last two items in a list are usually connected by and. In British English, it is quite unusual to use a comma with and.

• I visited France, Germany, Italy, Britain and Spain. (GB)
• I visited France, Germany, Italy, Britain, and Spain. (US)

Notes

When there are just two items in a list, a comma is not necessary before and.

I met John and Mary. (NOT I met John, and Mary.)

When there are more than two items, some people prefer to use a comma before and. Some people do not use a comma. There is no right or wrong answer here. Pick a convention and then stick with it. That’s all.

The comma that goes before the conjunction is called the Oxford Comma. Interestingly, although it is called Oxford Comma, it is mainly used by writers in the US.

• I bought some milk, eggs, and butter. (List with Oxford Comma)
• I bought some milk, eggs and butter. (List without Oxford Comma)

Common comma errors

Comma is a very common punctuation mark. It is used to indicate a slight pause within a sentence. Students often misuse commas. If you don’t know whether a comma is appropriate in a particular sentence, try reading the sentence aloud. If the sentence sounds better without a pause, omit the comma. If it sounds better with a pause, add a comma. Don’t scatter commas throughout your writing.

Common mistakes in the use of commas

Do not place a comma between two verbs.

• The children were singing and dancing. (NOT The children were singing, and dancing.)

Use a comma to separate independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (e.g. and, but, or, so, yet, nor).

• She was not feeling very well, but she went to work.

However, the comma can be avoided when the clauses are too short.

When an adverb clause comes at the beginning of a sentence, we usually separate it with a comma.

• After she finished her homework, she watched TV.
• As I was walking down the street, I saw him driving a Ferrari.

The comma is not necessary when the main clause comes at the beginning of the sentence.

• She watched TV after she finished her homework.

Two clauses that are not connected by a coordinating conjunction cannot be separated by a comma.

• She was tired and went to bed. (NOT She was tired she went to bed.)

When a sentence begins with a conjunctive adverb, you need to separate the adverb with a comma.

• She was tired. Therefore, she decided to get some rest. (NOT She was tired. Therefore she decided to get some rest.)

Semicolon before a transitional phrase

A transitional phrase is essentially a word or phrase used to show the relationship between two clauses or paragraphs. Transitional phrases (also called conjunctive adverbs) usually come at the beginning of a sentence and are separated from the rest of the sentence with a comma. Common examples of transitional phrases are: however, therefore, consequently, furthermore, moreover, even as etc.

Read the sentences given below.

• The train was an hour late. In spite of this, I managed to get to the meeting in time.

Here the phrase ‘in spite of this’ acts as a transitional adverb. As you can see, it does not connect the two clauses. It merely shows how ideas are connected.

We usually use a full stop before a transitional phrase. Sometimes writers use semi-colons instead of full stops. An advantage of using this method is that it makes the transition between the sentences even more seamless.

• She had little chance of success. Nevertheless, she decided to enter the competition.
• OR She had little chance of success; nevertheless, she decided to enter the competition.
• I cannot attend your wedding. However, my blessings are always with you.
• OR I cannot attend your wedding; however, my blessings are always with you.

Note that you cannot use a comma to separate the two sentences. This is a common punctuation mistake.

• I want to pass the test. Therefore, I work hard. OR I want to pass the test; therefore, I work hard. (BUT NOT I want to pass the test, therefore, I work hard.)

Commonly confused expressions

Here is a quick overview of some phrases and expressions that are commonly confused.

Supposed to / used to
You are not supposed to break the rules. (NOT You are not suppose to break the rules.)

I am used to living alone. (NOT I am use to living alone.)

It is wrong to drop the ‘d’ in supposed and used. However, this is a mistake that many people make.

Beside the point
If something is beside the point, it is not relevant to the point. It is wrong to write ‘besides the point’.

Beside means ‘next to’ or ‘at the side of’. Besides means ‘in addition to.

Couldn’t care less
The expression ‘I could care less’ is always wrong.

I couldn’t care less means ‘I don’t care at all’. However, ‘I could care less’ does not mean that you care a lot.

Whet your appetite
To whet your appetite is to sharpen your appetite. Even mouth-watering delicacies can’t ‘wet your appetite’. The correct expression is ‘whet your appetite’.

Nip it in the bud
To nip something in the bud is to prevent it from growing into something bigger.

Don’t nip it in the butt. That will not solve your problem.

Toe the line
To toe the line is to adhere to a standard or rule. Don’t write ‘tow the line’.

For all intents and purposes
‘For all intents and purposes’ means ‘pretty much’ or ‘almost completely’. It is wrong to write ‘for all intensive purposes’.

Bald-faced lie
A bald-faced lie is an audacious lie. The person who tells a bald-faced lie does not make any attempt to disguise it as truth. However, this does not make it a ‘bold-faced lie’.

Identify the wrong word

Identify the word or phrase that needs to be removed from the sentence to make it grammatically correct.

1. He called me as a fool.

a) called

b) as

c) a

2. This is the house where Jack was born in.

a) where

b) was

c) in

3. I have visited them a couple of times during my stay in Mexico.

a) have

b) couple

c) of

4. I live half of a mile from here.

a) half

b) of

c) a

5. I don’t think so that I will have time.

a) so

b) that

c) will

6. Despite of having a headache I enjoyed the film.

a) despite

b) of

c) having

7. He asked to her why she was angry.

a) to

b) why

c) was

8. He was very kind enough to invite me.

a) very

b) enough

c) to

9. I have bought a chicken in case of Peter stays to lunch.

a) in case

b) of

c) to

10. I want to know as to why I have been detained.

a) as to

b) why

c) been

























Answers

1. as (The sentence should read: He called me a fool.)

2. in (The sentence should read: This is the house where Jack was born.)

3. have (The sentence should read: I visited them a couple of times during my stay in Mexico.)

4. of (The sentence should read: I live half a mile from here.)

5. so (The sentence should read: I don’t think that I will have time.)

6. of (The sentence should read: Despite having a headache I enjoyed the film.)

7. to (The sentence should read: He asked her why she was angry.)

8. very (The sentence should read: He was kind enough to invite me.)

9. of (The sentence should read: I have bought a chicken in case Peter stays to lunch.)

10. as to (The sentence should read: I want to know why I have been detained.)

TOEFL essay writing tips

There are two tasks in the TOEFL Writing section. The first writing task is an integrated task: you will have to listen to a lecture and read a passage. You must then write a summary of both passages.

The second writing task is an independent essay. You have to write an essay of at least 300 words on a given topic. You will have to write on the topic you are given. No choice is available. TOEFL iBT is a computerized test. You have to type both essays on a computer. If you do not know typewriting well, you must practice on a keyboard before your test.

You can cut, copy and paste as you type your essays, but remember that the computer will not check your spelling or grammar. That means you have to do your homework. Learn the spellings of all words you tend to misspell.

General writing strategies
The TOEFL writing section has two tasks. It takes about 50 minutes. Here are a few tips for success on the Writing section.

Organize your thoughts first
Do not start writing as soon the section begins. Instead, use one or two minutes for organizing your ideas. This is very important, because few people are capable of organizing their thoughts in their mind as they write. As a result they will have to edit more.

By organizing your ideas in the beginning itself, you will get an outline for your essay. Once you have got the outline ready, you only need to develop the ideas into paragraphs. However, do not spend more than 2 or 3 minutes on an outline. Remember that you will not get any marks for the outline.

Use familiar vocabulary
Some students try to impress the examiner with complex vocabulary. You must not try this stunt if you are not familiar with these words. Of course, you have to use academic words in your essay. However, they needn’t necessarily be obscure.

General writing tips for TOEFL and IELTS

While writing your TOEFL or IELTS essay, avoid using unfamiliar vocabulary. In a bid to impress the examiner with complex vocabulary, many students commit this mistake.

Instead use the vocabulary you would normally use. During the preparation stage itself try to incorporate new words into your writing. Make it a habit so that you learn their correct usage. You can then use these words while writing your TOEFL essays. However, avoid the temptation to use unfamiliar words on the actual TOEFL test. Remember that to add variety and sophistication to your writing you don’t have to use long, obscure words. In fact, most ideas can be expressed using more common words. You must still make a conscious effort to use precise vocabulary. For example, some English words are used to express a large number of ideas. A common example is the word ‘get’. It can be used to express ideas such as ‘acquire’, ‘catch, ‘earn’, ‘coax’, ‘become’, ‘score’ and so on.

While writing your TOEFL essay, try to use words that express the idea more precisely.

Correct: While holidaying in London, Susie acquired a strong British accent.

Incorrect: While holidaying in London, Susie got a strong British accent.

If you use so many general words, the examiner will not be too happy with your essay.

Use familiar and natural sentence structures

While evaluating your essay, the examiner will pay close attention to your grammatical range and accuracy. That means you will not get a good score if you only write short and simple sentences of the same pattern. If you repeat the same sentence patterns, it will make your writing boring. To avoid this try to use different sentence structures. Also write sentences of various lengths. For example, by writing a long sentence after one or two short sentences you can add variety to your writing. However, you must not use different sentence structures just for the sake of adding variety. Avoid unfamiliar sentence patterns because you are more likely to make grammar mistakes while writing them. Also avoid extremely long sentences. Instead, keep your sentences relatively short.

Common writing mistakes – part 2

UK vs. US Spelling

British and American spellings are different in many ways. It doesn’t really matter which spelling you use while writing. However, you have to remain consistent throughout your writing. So for example, if you intend to use American spelling, stick to it. Do not use American spellings for some words and British spellings for other words.

Avoid excessively long sentences

In a bid to impress the examiner, students often try to write excessively long sentences that contain numerous main and subordinate clauses. Unfortunately, this is not a good practice. When your sentences are too long, your chances of making mistakes are pretty high. This doesn’t necessarily mean that you have to write only simple sentences. Actually, that is not recommended either. If all of your sentences are of the same length, they will make your text boring. Therefore, it is always a good idea to strike a balance between simple and complex sentences. Use them both in your writing, but make sure that your complex sentences are of a manageable length. Although there are no hard and fast rules regarding the length of a sentence, it is always a good idea to limit the number of subordinate clauses to two or three. And at the same time, do not use more than two main clauses in a sentence. By using different sentence patterns, you can add variety and sophistication to your writing.

Bottom-line: Do not use too many conjunctions in a sentence. If you feel that your sentences are too long, re-read them to see if they can be broken up. Your readers will also like shorter sentences because they are easier to understand.

Avoid excessively long paragraphs

Pay attention to the size of your paragraphs. They should be neither too long, nor too short. If you are writing an essay, you can try paragraphs of different lengths. For example, you can write a short paragraph after a long one or vice-versa. This will add variety. Avoid excessively long paragraphs at any cost. For one thing, they will immediately put off the reader. Studies have proved that people are more likely to read shorter pieces of text. They wouldn’t mind reading a long essay or document if it is neatly broken into paragraphs of reasonable length. But if your paragraphs are too long, few people will bother to read in the first place.

In general, you can include three to five paragraphs on an A4 paper. Also make sure that only one main idea or topic is discussed in each paragraph.

Common mistakes in ESL writing – part I

English is an international language. Even in countries where it is not the first language, it is widely taught and used for administrative purposes. For example, in India English is one of the official languages. It is estimated that the number of people for whom English is the second language is much greater than the number of people for whom English is the first language. However, many people who use English as a second language cannot write without mistakes. In this article, we will take a look at some of the most common writing mistakes of ESL students.

Change of narrative

Sometimes students often start writing in the first person and change to the third person. This can cause a lot of confusion. While writing a piece of academic text, it is always a good idea to use the third person narrative. This is an unwritten rule that exists in academia. This doesn’t necessarily mean that you have to totally eliminate the pronouns I and we from your writing. Sometimes it is not possible; sometimes it just doesn't make much sense. However, as far as possible, try to use the impersonal pronoun it instead of the first person pronouns I or we. Of course, it will also mean some changes in the tense and voice. Note that if you use personal pronouns throughout your term paper or essay, it could result in poor grading.

Run-on sentences

This is a very common mistake. If a sentence contains two or more main clauses, they have to be properly connected using a coordinating conjunction. If you do not want to use a conjunction, you have to use an appropriate punctuation mark like semicolon. Alternatively you can split the two clauses using a full-stop.

Improper capitalization

Rules of capitalization are relatively easy to follow. Nonetheless, ESL students sometimes get them wrong.

Always begin a sentence with a capital letter. Capitalize the first letters of proper nouns. Examples are: John, Rahul, Mary, Microsoft etc. Do not capitalize the first letters of common nouns. Examples are: boy, girl, computer etc. The personal pronoun ‘I’ should always be capitalized.

Essay writing: why you must strive for variety and coherence

Every essay is woven around a particular topic. Therefore, finding a topic to write on is the first thing you need to do. The principles of good writing are the same and must be followed at all stages of composition. Every essay begins with a sentence. It just happens to have a large number of sentences in it. Make each sentence grammatically and structurally correct and you have won half the battle.

Variety

Use different sentence patterns in your essay. Variety is essential to retain the reader’s interest. If you write too many sentences of the same pattern, your writing may sound dull and monotonous and the reader may lose interest. To avoid this, use all kinds of sentences in your essay. There should be long and short sentences, simple and complex, straight forward and inverted. Note that a good knowledge of the different techniques of sentence synthesis is essential to add variety and sophistication to your writing.

Variety is necessary; however, it must not be overdone. The idea is to make your essay interesting to read. This is possible only by having a simple and direct approach.

Coherence

Linking words are essential to achieve the effect of unbroken continuity of thought. Most linking words are conjunctions. When used correctly, words like hence, so, therefore, but, or, then etc will connect the sentences up and make the paragraph a well-knit whole.

If ideas have to be contrasted, you can use expressions like on the other hand, on the contrary, however, nevertheless, yet and still. There are also several discourse markers that usually go at the beginning of a clause.

Essays: history and definition

An essay is a piece of composition. Composition is the art of composing an article on a theme or subject. A piece of composition has to be written in clear and grammatically correct English so that it becomes interesting to read. You can write on any topic you like; you can express your thoughts in any way you like. There is no hard and fast rule regarding the size of an essay. It could consist of any number of paragraphs.

History of essays

The first man who used the term essai was a Frenchman called Michel de Montaigne. He wrote about his feelings on certain ideas like idleness, agony etc in the late 1500s. The first English essayist was Sir Francis Bacon who wrote on subjects like death, fear, friendship, studies etc in the early 1600s.

What is an essay?

An essay is a short piece of composition that expresses the writer’s opinion on a particular subject. It is a major form of literature that includes many types of writings such as magazine articles and newspaper editorials.

Structure

An essay has a loose structure. According to Samuel Johnson an essay is ‘an irregular, indigested piece of writing’. However, well-structured essays also exist. Academic essays, for example, follow a well-structured pattern. In any case, structure or its absence doesn’t seem to matter much in the case of essays.

Generally speaking, an essay has an introduction and a conclusion. You can find several paragraphs between the introductory and the ending paragraph.

Type

There are several different types of essays. An essay can be formal or informal, impersonal or familiar. Formal essays tend to have a rigid structure. They are also more expository and systematic. Informal essays, on the other hand, have a personal, intimate and often humorous style. They could even be written in conversational language.

Story writing tips

To tell a story well you need some practice. A good story writer looks ahead as he tells the story and plans it out. To write a good story you must have the whole plot clear in your mind. You must also have the main points arranged in their proper order.

So how does one write a good story? To be a good story writer you must have a fertile imagination. Read extensively and you will find your mind brimming with ideas. Here are a few tips to help you become a better story writer.

Before you start writing, see that you have a clear idea of the plot in your mind. Once you have got the outline ready all that you need to do is to develop the points.

While writing the story, do not omit any point and keep to the order in which the events take place.

Connect the points naturally so that the story will read as a well written piece of composition.

Use your imagination and where possible introduce dialogues. Note that care must be taken to ensure that they sound natural and interesting.

Emphasize the leading points and do not dwell too long on minor details.

The conclusion is the most important part of the story. The whole story must lead up to it naturally and then it should come as a bit of a surprise.

Make sure that your composition is grammatical and idiomatic and in good simple English. Revise your work and if necessary rewrite it until it is as good as you can make it.

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How to write a short story

A short story is a work of fiction. It is a product of the author’s imagination. Every short story has a beginning, a middle part and an ending.

Development of a short story requires careful thought and planning. Not every writer employs the same techniques in writing a short story. Some start with the plot and then create the characters. Others start by creating characters and then allow them to interact. From this interaction, the plot takes shape. Here are a few tips for writing a short story. Note that these are not meant for a seasoned writer who has already mastered the art of story-telling. Nonetheless, a beginner with little or no experience in writing a short story should find these tips helpful.

Step 1: determine the plot

The theme is what the story is about. A theme sometimes conveys a moral. If you have read the Aesop’s Fables you should know what I mean. All of those stories have a message. Some stories are written just for the purpose of conveying a message. The message could be any of the following:

The victory of virtue over vice

Sportsman spirit: It is not about winning; it is about how you play the game

The righteous may have to face huge hardships

Honesty is the best policy

You don’t really have to state the message at the end of the story. As the story develops and ends the reader should be able to comprehend the message.

Step 2: outline the plot

Every story requires a plot. Actually, the story develops from the plot. You can indicate the plot in the opening lines and then develop it gradually. As the plot unfolds characters will appear on the scene and start interacting with one another.

Complications and conflicts

These are an integral part of the plot. Complications and conflicts don’t have to be really complicated. Minor complications will do just fine – it depends upon the plot. Think about events that lead to the conflict. What are the problems that the characters encounter? You can develop complications and conflicts out of the interactions of the characters. Sometimes, destiny can play a role in making your characters’ life complicated.

Develop the crisis

What are the results of the conflict? How do they lead to additional, more complicated conflicts? The conflict or complications should lead to what is called the ‘rising action’. The rising action will create more complications and tension and will raise the story up to the crisis. The crisis is the turning point. It leads to the climax. The climax is the highest point of interest.

Bring the story to an end

Once you have reached the climax, you can’t climb any higher. The conflict and crisis needs to be resolved in the climax. Think about the outcome of the events that lead to the climax. Do these events change the characters or the way they interact with others? Do they learn any lessons? Once the conflict and crisis are resolved the story comes to an end. This final outcome is called the denouement.

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Rewrite in the proper order

The sentences given below are taken from a story, but they are jumbled. That means they are not arranged in their proper order. Rearrange them in their logical sequence.

1. The young man sold his share of the property and left for another country.

2. The father tried to dissuade his son, but he wouldn’t listen to his father whom he regarded as old and ignorant.

3. Years went by. The younger son began to get restless because he was unhappy with his lot.

4. He led a luxurious life and spent a lot of money on gambling.

5. They were living together happily.

6. Soon all his money was gone and he became a pauper.

7. Once there lived a rich farmer.

8. He went to his father and asked for his share of the property.

9. So the father gave him a third of his property.

10. He had two sons.

Solution

Once there lived a rich farmer. He had two sons. They were living together happily. Years went by. The younger son began to get restless because he was unhappy with his lot. He went to his father and asked for his share of the property. The father tried to dissuade his son, but he wouldn’t listen to his father whom he regarded as old and ignorant. So the father gave him a third of his property. The young man sold his share of the property and left for another country. He led a luxurious life and spent a lot of money on gambling. Soon all his money was gone and he became a pauper.

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Adjective phrase

A word group that has an adjective as its head is called an adjective phrase. Note that the adjective in this phrase may be accompanied by other words such as determiners, modifiers etc.

Adjective phrases can go before a noun (attributive position). They can also go after a linking verb like be (predicative position).

• He was wearing a dark brown suit. (Here the adjective phrase ‘a dark brown’ modifies the noun suit.)
• The fish tasted awfully funny. (Here the adjective phrase ‘awfully funny’ says something about the fish. It goes after the copular or linking verb tasted.

A copular verb does not take an object and it cannot be modified by an adverb. The word or phrase that follows a copular verb typically says something about the subject of the sentence.

• The fish tasted awful. (NOT The fish tasted awfully.)

Here the adjective awful says something about the fish. It doesn’t modify the verb tasted.

Note that the adjective in an adjective phrase may be modified by an adverb. When it is modified by an adverb, the adverb goes before the adjective. The adjective may also be modified by other determiners like articles, possessives and demonstratives.

Consider the phrase ‘my cute little daughter’

Here the adjective phrase ‘my cute little’ consists of a possessive (my) and two adjectives (cute and little).

Sometimes the idea expressed by an adjective can also be expressed using a noun phrase. Consider the examples given below.

• Brutus is an honourable man. (Here the adjective honourable modifies the noun man.)

The same idea can be expressed using the phrase: a man of honour

• Brutus is a man of honour.

Another example is given below.

• Churchill was an eminent man. (Here the adjective eminent modifies the noun man.)
• Churchill was a man of eminence. (Here the noun phrase ‘a man of eminence’ means the same as the phrase ‘an eminent man’.)

Adjective or adverb?

Adjectives are words used to modify nouns. They usually go before nouns. Adjectives may also go after be (is, am, are, was, were) and copular verbs like become, seem, look, feel etc.

• I feel happy. (NOT I feel happily.)
• She seemed excited. (NOT She seemed excitedly.)
• They were upset.

Adverbs are words used to modify verbs. They usually express the manner in which something is done. Adverbs are also used to modify adjectives and other adverbs.

An adverb used to modify an adjective or another adverb usually goes before it. Enough is an exception to this rule. It goes after the adjective or adverb it modifies.

Complete the following sentences using the correct words from those given in brackets.

1. Our team played …………………………. (good / well) last week.

2. We have not gathered ………………………… (near / nearly) enough flowers.

3. The old woman was walking …………………………… (slow / slowly) past.

4. Come to my office as ………………………. (quick / quickly) as possible.

5. We had a ……………………….. (really / real) great time at the party.

6. Sophia won the first prize …………………………. (easy / easily)






















Answers

1. Our team played well yesterday. (Here the adverb well modifies the verb played.)

2. We have not gathered nearly enough flowers. (Here the adverb nearly modifies the adjective enough.)

3. The old woman was walking slowly past. (Here the adverb slowly modifies the verb walking.)

4. Come to my office as quickly as possible. (Here the adverb quickly modifies the verb come.)

5. We had a really great time at the party. (Here the adverb really modifies the adjective great.)

6. Sophia won the first prize easily. (Here the adverb easily modifies the verb won.)

Absolute adjectives

Some adjectives express ideas that cannot be graded. For example, a person can’t be more or less dead. In the same way, a sphere can’t be more or less round. In grammars these adjectives are called non-gradable or absolute adjectives.

Non-gradable adjectives do not have comparative or superlative forms. There are very few non-gradable adjectives, so you can learn them by heart if you really want. Here is a list of common non-gradable adjectives in English. Note that this is not a comprehensive list.

Absolute, impossible, principal, adequate, inevitable, sufficient, complete, main, unanimous, unavoidable, entire, minor, fatal, unique, final, universal, ideal, whole, preferable, dead etc.                      
Exceptions

Although the adjectives given above are not normally used in comparative and superlative forms, you might still hear expressions like more complete or most perfect. Though incorrect, these expressions are quite common in speech and they have become sort of acceptable, too. However, if you are a careful user of the language, you must avoid them especially in writing.

Also be careful, not to use more along with a comparative adjective ending in –er and most with a superlative adjective ending in -est. Do not write more taller or most smartest. These are examples of double comparatives and superlatives. They are always wrong and must be avoided.

• She is prettier than her sister. (NOT She is more prettier than her sister.)

Some compound adjectives have two possible comparatives and superlatives.

Positive: good-looking

Comparative: better-looking or more good-looking

Superlative: best-looking or most good-looking

Positive: well-known

Comparative: better-known or more well-known

Superlative: best-known or most well-known

In this case, you can decide which form you want to use, but don’t write most best-known or more better-looking.

Relative pronouns used to introduce adjective clauses

We have already learned that an adjective clause is a group of words that works like an adjective. Adjectives are used to modify nouns. In the same way, adjective clauses are also used to modify nouns.

In this lesson we will take a look at the five relative pronouns used to introduce adjectives clauses. Note that adjective clauses are also called relative clauses.

The most common adjective clauses begin with the relative pronouns who, which and that. Note that who is only used to refer to people and which is only used to refer to things. That can be used to refer to both people and things.

The other two relative pronouns used to introduce adjective clauses are whose and whom. Whose is the possessive form of who. Whom is the object form of who.

• The girl, whose brother we met in the morning, is my sister’s classmate.

Here the relative pronoun whose shows the relationship between the girl and her brother.

Whom can replace object pronouns (him, her, them etc.) Who and whom are often confused. Although it is possible to use whom instead of who in a less formal style, you have to keep the distinction between these forms in academic writing.

Note that when whom is used in a sentence, it will be immediately followed by another noun / pronoun and verb. Who, on the other hand, acts as the subject of the relative clause and hence it is not immediately followed by another noun.

• She married a rich guy whom I have known for quite some time. (Note that whom is immediately followed by another pronoun.)
• She married an engineer who was my senior at university. (NOT She married an engineer whom was my …)

The positive, comparative and superlative degrees

An adjective can exist in three forms – positive, comparative and superlative. The positive form is the base form of the adjective. The comparative form expresses a higher degree of some quality. The superlative form expresses the highest degree.

Fill in the blanks with the comparative or superlative form of the adjective given in the brackets.

1. How is your mother today? Is she any ……………………………………..? (Good)

2. In India May is ……………………………………… than June. (Hot)

3. Julie is …………………………………….. than her sister. (Pretty)

4. Who is the …………………………………… girl in your class? (Beautiful)

5. Which is the …………………………………….. of all metals. (Precious)

6. Her husband is ten years ………………………………………… than her. (Old)

7. All of us are bad singers, but I sing the …………………………………….. of all. (Bad)

8. I think you require a …………………………………….. diet. (Nutritious)

9. Which is the …………………………………… part of India? (Dry)

10. It was the ………………………………….. moment of my life. (Proud)

Answers

1. Is she any better?

2. In India May is hotter than June.

3. Julie is prettier than her sister.

4. Who is the most beautiful girl in your class?

5. Which is the most precious of all metals?

6. Her husband is ten years older than her.

7. All of us are bad singers, but I sing the worst of all.

8. I think you require a more nutritious diet.

9. Which is the driest part of India?

10. It was the proudest moment of my life.

Notes

The comparative adjective is usually followed by the preposition than. The superlative adjective should be used with the article the.

Using adjectives

Adjectives are describing words. Adjectives usually go before the nouns they modify (attributive position). They can also go after the verb be (predicative position). Note that most adjectives can go in both positions.

Study the example sentences given below.

The flowers are red. (Predicative position)

These are red flowers. (Attributive position)

The car is expensive. (Predicative position)

It is an expensive car.

Exercise

Read the following sentences. In all of them, the adjectives are in the predicative position. Change them into the attributive position by rewriting the sentence. Note that the second sentence in the sequence should begin with a pronoun. You will also need to supply a suitable article.

1. The necklace was expensive. …………………………………………………………….

2. The question was tough. …………………………………………………………..

3. The flowers are fresh. …………………………………………………………..

4. The experience was enjoyable. …………………………………………………..

5. The job was tedious. ………………………………………………

6. The memory was painful. ………………………………………………..

7. The woman is experienced. …………………………………………….

8. The workmen are skilled. ………………………………………………..

9. The development was unexpected. ……………………………………………

10. The decision was foolish. …………………………………………………

Answers

1. It was an expensive necklace.

2. It was a tough question.

3. They are fresh flowers.

4. It was an enjoyable experience.

5. It was a tedious job.

6. It was a painful memory.

7. She is an experienced woman.

8. They are skilled workmen.

9. It was an unexpected development.

10. It was a foolish decision.

Word order: position of adjectives

Different kinds of words go in different positions in a sentence. For example, nouns usually go at the beginning of a sentence. Adjectives usually go before nouns. They can also go after verbs. Nouns, too, can go after verbs. The main factor that determines the position of a word is its function. For example, a noun used as the subject of the verb has to go at the beginning of the sentence. A noun used as the object of a verb can only go after the verb. As the placement of words can significantly affect the meaning of a sentence it is important to learn the rules regarding the position of words. Here is a basic guide to word order in English.

Adjectives

Adjectives usually go before the nouns they modify.

• Susie is a beautiful girl. (Here the adjective beautiful goes immediately before the noun (girl) it modifies.)

More examples are given below.

• We met an interesting man.
• That was a wonderful experience.
• She is a great woman.

Note that we cannot put another word between an adjective and the noun it modifies. 

However, we can use any number of adjectives to modify the same noun.

• She married a tall, dark, handsome man.

When more than one adjective modify the same noun, we usually separate them using a comma. No commas are used to separate the last adjective in the series from the noun it modifies.

Adjectives can also go after linking verbs. Note that the most common linking verbs in English are: is, am, are, was, were, become, seem, appear, taste, feel, grow and turn.

When adjectives go after linking verbs, they usually describe the subject.

• Susie is beautiful. (Here the adjective beautiful describes the noun Susie.)
• The fish tasted funny. (Here the adjective funny describes the taste of the fish.)
• The night grew dark.
• The milk turned sour.
• I felt awful.

Mistakes in the use of adjectives

Here is a list of errors that ESL students often make in the use of adjectives.

• Incorrect: She is more stronger than her sister.
• Correct: She is stronger than her sister.

Avoid double comparatives. Adjectives of one syllable usually form their comparatives by adding –er to the positive. Longer adjectives take more.

• Incorrect: Bombay is further from Delhi than Agra.
• Correct: Bombay is farther from Delhi than Agra.

Further means ‘additional’. Farther is used to talk about distance.

• Incorrect: You have much books.
• Correct: You have many books.

• Incorrect: I have many work to do.
• Correct: I have much work to do.

Use much with uncountable nouns. Use many with countable nouns.

• Incorrect: She is growing strong and strong everyday.
• Correct: She is growing stronger and stronger everyday.

The comparative form of the adjective is used in structures like these.

• Incorrect: Let’s go quiet somewhere.
• Correct: Let’s go somewhere quiet.

The adjective usually goes after expressions like somewhere.

• Incorrect: I can’t afford that a big car.
• Correct: I can’t afford that big a car.

Note the pattern: that + adjective + a/an + noun

• Incorrect: Tell me the last news.
• Correct: Tell me the latest news.

Latest means ‘the most recent’. Last means ‘the previous one’.

• Incorrect: I have less worries than you.
• Correct: I have fewer worries than you.

Use less with uncountable nouns. Use fewer with countable nouns.

• Incorrect: He wasted his all wealth.
• Correct: He wasted all his wealth.

Quantifiers like all, both and half go before possessives.