Mistakes in the use of conjunctions

Students sometimes add too many conjunctions because they do not remember exactly how many clauses they have written. Therefore before you submit your work, you have to edit it and make sure that you have the correct number of clauses.

Read the following sentence.

• Incorrect: I think that the new shopping mall which will improve the economy and create more jobs.
• Correct: I think that the new shopping mall will improve the economy and create more jobs.

This sentence contains the unnecessary conjunction which. Because of the conjunction ‘which’ the dependent subject of the noun clause (‘the new shopping mall’) has no verb. The clause ‘which will improve the economy and create more jobs’ is an adjective clause modifying the noun ‘shopping mall’. As a result of this the noun clause is incomplete. By removing which you can also remove the adjective clause and create a complete noun clause: that the new shopping mall will improve the economy and create jobs.

More examples are given below.

• Incorrect: Because the new shopping mall will improve the economy and create jobs, so I support it.

This sentence has just two clauses, but it also has two conjunctions. Since one clause in the sentence must be an independent clause, it must not have a conjunction. In other words, if a sentence has just two clauses, we need only one conjunction.

• Correct: Because the new shopping mall will improve the economy and create jobs, I support it.
• Correct: The new shopping mall will improve the economy and create jobs, so I support it.

If a sentence has three clauses, we need just two conjunctions.

• It was Copernicus who proved that the sun was the center of the universe. (Three clauses and two conjunctions)

Whether … or …

Whether…or… can be used as a double conjunction.

An example is given below.

• Some lessons are easy. Some lessons are difficult. A student will have to learn all of them.

We can combine these three sentences into one using whether …or.

• A student will have to learn all the lessons whether they are easy or difficult.

More examples are given below.

• He might come. I don’t know.
• I don’t know whether he will come or not.
• She might recognize me. I don’t know.
• I don’t know whether she will recognize me or not.
• You may not like it. You will have to take this medicine.
• You will have to take this medicine whether you like it or not.
• She may or may not come with us. We will have to go.
• We will have to go whether she comes with us or not.

Notes

When the second part of this structure is negative, there are several possibilities.

Read the sentences given below.

• Whether you like it or whether you don’t, you will have to work on this project.
• Whether or not you like it, you will have to work on this project.
• Whether you like it or not, you will have to work on this project.

Another example is given below.

Susie does not like Peter. She will have to marry him.

Susie will have to marry Peter whether she likes him or not.

Whether or not she likes him, Susie will have to marry Peter.

Whether she likes Peter or whether she doesn't, Susie will have to marry him.

Conjunctions exercise

Complete the following sentences using appropriate conjunctions.

1. The car is running more smoothly ……………………….. it had a service. (since / for)

2. ……………………….. Mike is married, he is much more responsible. (now that / such that)

3. I haven’t settled the question of …………………… I’ll go back home. (whether / if)

4. They held the meeting on a holiday …………………….. everyone would be free to attend. (in order that / in order for)

5.  …………………………….. she hadn't prepared for the presentation, she did a commendable job. (as / although)

6. …………………….. I told you earlier, the meeting has been postponed. (as / like)

7. My doctor told me to avoid fatty foods ………………………….. burgers and cheese. (as / such as)

8. It was …………………………… a loud noise …………………….. to wake everybody in the whole neighbourhood. (such…as / so…that)

9. ………………………… much he eats, he never gets fat. (whatever / however)

10. He accepted the challenge ………………………… he had been waiting for it. (as though / though)

Answers

1. The car is running more smoothly since it had a service.

2. Now that Mike is married, he is much more responsible.

3. I haven’t settled the question of whether I’ll go back home.

4. They held the meeting on a holiday in order that everyone would be free to attend.

5.  Although she hadn't prepared for the presentation, she did a commendable job.

6. As I told you earlier, the meeting has been postponed.

7. My doctor told me to avoid fatty foods such as burgers and cheese.

8. It was such a loud noise as to wake everybody in the whole neighbourhood.

9. However much he eats, he never gets fat.

10. He accepted the challenge as though he had been waiting for it.

Subordinating One Clause to Another

Coordinating conjunctions simply link ideas. Subordinating conjunctions, on the other hand, also establish a more complex relationship between the clauses. They suggest that one idea depends on another in some way. Maybe there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the two. Or maybe the two clauses simply show a chronological development of ideas.

Remember that in most cases the same clauses that are connected by a coordinating conjunction can also be connected by a subordinating conjunction. There is really no difference in meaning; however, the grammar is a bit different.

Study the examples given below.

• He had not received any formal training in engineering. He was a brilliant mechanic.

These two clauses can be combined using the coordinating conjunction but.

• He had not received any formal training in engineering but he was a brilliant mechanic.

We can also express the same idea using the subordinating conjunction though / although.

• Although he had not received any formal training in engineering, he was a brilliant mechanic.

The rules of punctuation are very important when we use subordinating conjunctions to join clauses. As a general rule, a subordinate clause that comes at the beginning of a sentence should be separated from the other clause with a comma. You can omit the comma when the subordinate clause goes after the main clause.

• Since he had not applied in time, he didn't get the job. (Here we use a comma to separate the subordinate clause from the main clause.)
• He didn't get the job because he hadn't applied in time. (Here we do not use a comma because the subordinate clause goes after the main clause.)

Common mistakes in the use of some conjunctions

Scarcely and hardly

These words are followed by when or before, not than.

• Hardly had I entered the room when a strange creature ran out. OR Scarcely had I entered the room when a strange creature ran out. (NOT Hardly had I entered the room, than …)

No sooner is followed by than, not when

• No sooner did she complete one project than she started working on the next.

As you can see, the adverbs hardly, scarcely and no sooner are all negative expressions. When a negative expression comes at the beginning of a sentence, we use inverted word order. That means the auxiliary verb comes before the subject.

These adverbs can also go in mid-position. In that case, we use normal word order.

• I had hardly entered the room when a strange creature ran out.
• I had scarcely solved one problem before another cropped up.

Not only…but also

This correlative conjunction is often confused. When using not only… but also, you must make sure that both parts of this conjunction go before words of the same parts of speech.

• The controversy not only damages our image but also decreases investor confidence.

Here not only and but also go before two verbs.

• She was not only arrogant but also rude.

Here not only and but also go before two adjectives.

Lest

The conjunction lest is not very common in modern English. This word has a negative meaning. Therefore, it should not be used with not. The only auxiliary verb that can follow lest is should.

• Work hard lest you should fail. OR Work hard lest you fail. (NOT Work hard lest you should not fail.)

The same idea can be expressed using the expression or else.

• Work hard, or else you will fail.
• Leave on time, or else you will miss the train.

On the other hand, while and whereas

These words or phrases have similar uses, but the grammar is not quite the same. On the other hand is a conjunctive adverb. It is used to compare two situations or two people and to show that there is an important difference between them.

• In many Middle Eastern countries, it is quite common for parents to find suitable brides and grooms for their children. On the other hand, arranged marriages are unusual in the West.
• I like living in the city. My wife, on the other hand, prefers the countryside.

The same idea can be expressions using the conjunctions while and whereas.

• While arranged marriages are quite unusual in the West, they are quite common in many Middle Eastern countries.
• I like living in the city, while / whereas my wife prefers the countryside.
• While / whereas English has just five vowel sounds, some languages have 30 or more.
• There are just five vowel sounds in English. On the other hand, some languages have 30 or more.

As you can see, there is an important difference between these three sentence connectors. While and whereas are conjunctions. They connect two clauses. On the other hand is not a conjunction. It goes at the beginning of the second clause and is usually separated from the rest of the sentence with a comma.

It can also go in the middle of the sentence. In that case we use two commas to set it off.

• In many western countries, the elderly live in retirement homes run by health professionals. In India, on the other hand, they live with their children and grandchildren.

Other conjunctive adverbs that can be used to express same or similar ideas are: nevertheless, however and in contrast.

Common mistakes with conjunctions

One conjunction for two clauses

In English, we use just one conjunction to connect two clauses.

Incorrect: Because he is intelligent so he gets good marks.

Correct: Because he is intelligent he gets good marks. OR He is intelligent so he gets good marks.

Because is a conjunction and English does not require a second conjunction.

Incorrect: Since he was angry therefore I said nothing.

Correct: Since he was angry I said nothing. OR He was angry; therefore, I said nothing.

Since is a conjunction and it is enough to join the two clauses: He was angry and I said nothing.

Therefore is not a conjunction. It cannot connect two clauses. It is a transitional adverb. A transitional adverb should be separated from the rest of the sentence with a comma.

Incorrect: He did not come to work. Because he was ill.

Correct: He did not come to work because he was ill.

A subordinate clause cannot stand alone. It must be attached to an independent clause.

However, there are some exceptions to this rule. In natural spoken English, because clauses can stand alone.

‘Why are you laughing?’ ‘Because you look funny.’ (More natural than ‘I am laughing because you look funny’.)

Sentences beginning with a negative word

Incorrect: Neither he comes nor he writes.

Correct: Neither does he come nor does he write. (Formal)

Correct: He neither comes nor writes. (Informal)

When a negative word (e.g. neither, hardly, seldom, never, scarcely etc.) comes at the beginning of a sentence, the main verb must be inverted, as in a direct question. As you know, the verb comes before the subject in direct questions.

If there is no auxiliary verb, we use a form of do.

Another example is given below.

Incorrect: Neither he smokes nor he drinks.

Correct: Neither does he smoke nor does he drink.

Correct: He neither smokes nor drinks.

Using since

Since can be used as an adverb, a conjunction and a preposition.

Since as a preposition

As a preposition, since is followed by a noun/noun equivalent which acts as its object.

• She has changed a lot since her marriage.
• Everything has changed so much since our last meeting.

As an adverb

When since is used as an adverb, it is not followed by a noun.

• The boy went missing on Tuesday and hasn’t been seen since.

As a conjunction

Since can also be used as a conjunction. As a conjunction, since is used to connect two clauses. Clauses introduced by since typically show one of the two associations: time or cause/reason

• Since he had not studied hard, he failed his exam.
• Since I had no money, I couldn’t buy anything to eat.
• Since she was tired, she took some rest.

A since-clause introducing reason usually comes at the beginning of the sentence. A since-clause indicating time can come either before or after the main clause.

• She has written many books since she left college. / Since she left college, she has written many books.

Notes

When since is used to talk about time, the verb in the main clause is usually in the present perfect or past perfect (simple or continuous) tense.

• She had been acting in films since she was four.
• I have been working on this project since the end of June.
• It has been raining since morning.

Sometimes the simple present or simple past tense is also used.

Since means ‘starting at a particular point in the past and continuing until now’.

• I have known him since he was born.
• India has been an independent country since 1947.
• It has been several decades since India won a gold medal in Olympic Hockey.
• It has been several centuries since Vasco da Gama landed in India.

Ever since

• She started teaching at twenty and has been doing it ever since.
• Ever since I was a child, I have wanted to become a writer.

No sooner … than, Hardly…when

If the second event occurs immediately after the first, we can express that idea using the structure no sooner … than.

Note that in this structure no sooner introduces the event that occurred first.

• No sooner had I arrived at the station than the train came. (= I came first and the train arrived right after me.)
• No sooner had we heard the noise than we rushed to the spot.
• No sooner had she finished one project than she started working on the next.
• No sooner had I closed my eyes than I fell asleep.
• 
  

Note that did is also possible in this structure.

• No sooner did I arrive at the station than the train came.
• No sooner did we hear the noise than we rushed to the spot.

Notes

When we begin a sentence with a negative word, we put the auxiliary verb before the subject.

• No sooner had she read the letter than she started crying. (NOT No sooner she read the letter than she started crying.)

Note that when and before are not possible in this structure.

Hardly and scarcely

It is possible to express the same idea using hardly/scarcely…when.

• Hardly had I reached the station when the train came.
• Scarcely had I reached the station when the train arrived.

As soon as

This structure is also used with the same meaning.

As soon as I arrived at the station, the train came.

• As soon as she finished one project, she started working on the next.

Difference between conjunctions, relative pronouns and relative adverbs

Conjunctions, relative pronouns and relative adverbs can be used to connect two clauses. The grammar is different. Prepositions do not connect two clauses. They merely show the relationship between a noun/pronoun and another word in the sentence.

 

Relative pronouns

Relative pronouns are different from conjunctions. Relative pronouns are important connecting devices. They not only connect two clauses but also act as the subject or object of the verb in the relative clause. This is the main difference between conjunctions and relative pronouns. Conjunctions merely connect two clauses. They do not serve any other purpose.

Study the sentences given below.

 

This is the letter. My mother sent me this letter.

 

We can connect these two clauses.

 

This is the letter that my mother sent me.

 

Here the relative pronoun that replaces the phrase this letter and acts as the object of the verb sent. It is easy to decide whether a relative pronoun is the subject or the object. When it is the object it will be immediately followed by another noun which acts as the subject. In this case, the relative pronoun ‘that’ is followed by the noun ‘my mother’ which acts as the subject.

 

Another example is given below.

 

This is the boy. He won the first prize.

This is the boy who won the first prize.

 

Here the relative pronoun who replaces the pronoun he. It acts as the subject of the relative clause.

 

Relative adverb

The relative adverb not only modifies a verb, but also joins the two clauses in a sentence. Note that a relative adverb does not act as the subject or object in the relative clause. It merely replaces an adverb.

 

This is the house. John lives here.

This is the house where John lives.

 

Here the relative adverb where replaces the place adverb here.

 

Another example is given below.

I first met Susie on that day. I will never forget that day.

I will never forget the day when I first met Susie.

Correlative conjunctions

You already know what a conjunction is. It is a word used to connect two words, phrases or clauses. Examples are: and, but, because, when, while, since, if etc. There are mainly two types of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions.

 

Most conjunctions are simple one word structures, but some conjunctions come in pairs and then they are called correlative conjunctions. Most correlative conjunctions are coordinating conjunctions. Examples are: either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also and both…and.

 

When it comes to correlative conjunctions, you have to use both parts of the conjunction in different places to make them work.

 

• He wants either the chocolates or the cake.
• He said that he would like to have both the chocolates and the cake.
• You can have neither the cake nor the ice-cream.
• I have not yet decided whether I will have the cake or the ice-cream.
• He ate not only the chocolates but also the ice-cream.

 

While using a correlative conjunction, you have to make sure that the two parts of the conjunction go before words of the same kind. For example, if you use a noun after neither, you have to use another noun after nor. Students sometimes incorrectly mix

he structures.

 

• He is neither intelligent nor diligent. (Here we use adjectives (intelligent and diligent) after neither and nor.)
• They both sang and danced. (Here we use verbs after both and and.)
• Neither the engineer nor his colleagues could detect the problem.

 

Negative correlatives (e.g. neither…nor, scarcely…when) can go at the beginning of a sentence and then we use an inverted word order.

 

Study the examples given below.

• He neither wrote nor called. OR Neither did he write nor did he call. (Note that when a negative word comes at the beginning of the sentence, the auxiliary verb comes before the subject. If the original sentence doesn’t have an auxiliary verb we use form of do.)
• He not only smokes but also drinks.
• Not only does he smoke but he also drinks.

Common correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are usually coordinating in nature because the sentence fragments they connect tend to be of equal rank. As you know, a coordinating conjunction connects two independent clauses. A subordinating conjunction, on the other hand, connects a dependent clause to an independent clause.

 

Some correlative conjunctions and their uses are explained below.

 

Such … that

• It was such a hot afternoon that we decided to stay indoors. (Here the correlative connects the two clauses: It was a hot afternoon and We decided to stay indoors.)
• She was such a bad tempered woman that nobody liked her. (Here the correlative connects the two clauses: She was a bad tempered woman and Nobody liked her.)

 

Scarcely …when

• I had scarcely closed my eyes when someone knocked on the door.
• OR Scarcely had I closed my eyes when someone knocked on the door.

 

As (many/much) … as

• There are as many saucers as there are cups.
• You are not as clever as you think you are.
• His wife is as tall as he is.

 

No sooner … than

• She no sooner completed one project than she started working on the next.
• OR No sooner did she complete one project than she started working on the next.

 

Students sometimes wrongly use when in this structure. Remember that sooner is a comparative word and hence it should be followed by than, not when.

 

Rather … than

• I would rather read a book than watch TV.
• They would rather starve than surrender.
• She would rather dance than sing.

 

The expression rather than is normally used in parallel structures. For example, with two

adjectives, two adverbs, nouns, infinitives etc.

 

• I would prefer to visit Switzerland rather than Australia.
• I would prefer to walk rather than drive.